Good day to you all, I’ll be telling you things about the aforementioned topic but I’ll try to make it brief.

It’s not a new thing to you that admission will start reeling out from March upwards, which we are in already, let me just tell you this, the admission will start either mid or late March.

UniAbuja admission is not a one-day or one-week stuff, the admission duration is always more than a month, i.e the admission process may take like 3 months before it get concluded, that’s how UniAbuja do conduct her admission exercise.

And why is it always like that…?

Well, UniAbuja always give out the admission in a gradual process, whereby, Jambites will get admission first before Direct Entry Applicants start seeing theirs, and mind you, the admission is always by faculty by faculty or department by department, that’s why the admissions won’t come all at the same time.

The admission will come in starting from Merit then downwards. In this phase, those with high Jamb scores and strong O’level results for the course they applied for, will see their admissions first before any other applicants. Mind you, the total number of applicants for each course will determine how sure your admission will be for that course, because all departments have their respective admission quotas, i.e the total amount of applicants they can admit into that department. As for now, Political Science has the highest admission quota but I won’t tell you the total amount of students we do admit into it.

And also, UniAbuja admits applicants from each state of the country…
Let me give brief explanation to this,

No matter the amount of aspirants that applied from a state, the school must admit from there a certain number of students. Let’s say we have just 10 applicants from Kebbi State, and they scored low in their Jamb score, the school must still admit them as far as they meet our general cut off mark which is 180. So, no discrimination or segregation here at all, the school will admit from all states, that’s why you do see at times that someone that scored lesser got admission quick than someone that scored higher, the state of origin and the total amount of applicants that applied from each state matters most.

So, what about the collaboration between the School and Jamb…?

In this phase, it is the school that will give you admission, not Jamb!
After maximum scrutiny from the school and they are satisfied with your qualification, then they will award you with admission, and if they are not fully convinced of your qualifications, they may decide to drop you into another department by giving you another course. If they don’t find you qualifiable enough, then you won’t get admission at all.

After the school has given you admission, then they will forward your details to Jamb so that Jamb can announce the admission to you via your Jamb CAPS, this is so because all Institutions Regular Admissions MUST pass through Jamb, that’s the law behind the tertiary education admission system.

And know this, the moment the school award you admission, you don’t need to bother much on Jamb coz your admission will surely appear there, be it soon or later. Same thing applies to Direct Entry Applicants…

So, how is UniAbuja DIRECT ENTRY Admission Process…?

Before you can get your D.E Admission into our 200L here, you must have upper credit or credit in your ND or NCE qualification else you might have to start from 100L. IIf you are a Bsc. holder, you can get your 200L admission with any qualification, either 1st class, 2nd class or lower.

As for IJMB or JUPEB holder, if you score less than 10 points, you may have to start from 100L for some courses, the fact that you want to enter here as a Direct Entry applicant doesn’t mean they will just give you 200L like that, what you are bringing to us (your qualifications) matters most.

And if things go as planned, you guys will start school with us in the early month of May, just pray towards your admissions.

And don’t forget to always use the comments box below with maximum courtesy and respect. With this, every question will be answered, even though my schedule is always tight.

But if you come to the comment box to ask of anything that I’ve already addressed in this article, I’ll proudly ignore and delete such comment, sorry in advance.

Good Luck to you all.

Cheers to emperorelectricalworks.com the website with the best tops for everyone anywhere

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OAU Post UTME Past Questions for all departments is now available for free here. You can also download as much as possible for free.

You can now download the Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) post UTME past questions and answers (PDF) for free here. This page contains core subject combinations for OAU post UTME. On this page is also the OAU Post UTME subjects for candidates applying for Medicine and Surgery, Law, Biochemistry, International Relations, Physiology, Accounting, Environmental, Engineering and so on.

Before downloading the PDF or OAU Post UTME Questions, there are some information you should take notes of, that are essential for your success into this great citadel

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2. Candidates will also be required to participate in the Post-UTME screening on their allotted dates and time from 17th October to 22nd October 2022. Applicants that provide false information or upload incorrect credentials will be
   automatically disqualified.Candidates who chose Obafemi Awolowo University as their 1st choice.
3. Candidates who scored 200 and above in the last Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME).
4. Candidates who possess a minimum of five(5) O’level credit passes in accordance with the University’s Entry Requirements.
5. Candidates who are 17 years and above.

NOTE: Deadline for OAU 2022 Post UTME Registration as stated on the application website closes on Saturday, October 15, 2022.

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CONSTRUCTION OF A REMOTE CONTROL MOTOR CAR
PREPARED BY:

Soyombo oluwajuwonlo gabriel 2018702030240
Sangodoyin ajibola mujeeb 2018702030237
Sowunmi sunday Joseph 2018702030239
Sunmonu akinkunmi quadri 2018702030241
Fadare temitayo Lawrence. 2018702030121
Oyelabi Timileyin Samuel. 2016070203234

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
THE POLYTECHNIC IBADAN

MARCH, 2021.

AUTHENTICATION

I hereby certify that this project work “CONSTRUCTION OF A REMOTE CONTROL MOTOR CAR” was carried out by:

Soyombo oluwajuwonlo gabriel 2018702030240
Sangodoyin ajibola mujeeb 2018702030237
Sowunmi sunday Joseph 2018702030239
Sunmonu akinkunmi quadri 2018702030241
Fadare temitayo Lawrence. 2018702030121
Oyelabi Timileyin Samuel. 2016070203234

of the Department of Electrical Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan.

________ ____
MR. S.O. OLAYIWOLA
Supervisor

________ ____
ENGR. M.O. SADIQ
Head of Department

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE. i
AUTHENTICATION ii
TABLE OF CONTENT. iii
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT 1
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT 1
1.4 AIM OF THE PROJECT 2
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT 2
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT 2
1.7 BENEFIT OF THE STUDY 2
1.8 LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT 2
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERM 3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW OF REMOTE TECHNOLOGY 4
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF REMOTE CONTROL 5
2.3 REVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF REMOTE CONTROL CAR 9
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY 12
3.1 INTRODUCTION 12
3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SYSTEM 12
3.3 BLOCK DESCRIPTION 13
3.4 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS USED 14
3.5 CIRCUIT DESIGN OF REMOTE CONTROL CAR 14
REFERENCE 18

ABSTRACT

This work is on a remote control motor car. Remote controlled car is battery/ powered model cars or trucks that can be controlled from a distance using a specialized transmitter or remote. This Radio controlled system is adopted in many vehicles like cars, boats, planes, and even helicopters and scale railway locomotives. In this work we will use a couple of ICs and a motor fixed to a chassis to make a remote control car. This work involve a brief idea is to transmit control signals through radio frequency and receive it through a receiver module in the car. We will have two switches in our remote control to power each motor of the car.

The objective of this project is to design a low cost remote control toy or robot. In this work we shall assemble the motors, circuit, and wheels on the chassis.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT
PROBLEM STATEMENT
AIM OF THE PROJECT
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT
BENEFIT OF THE STUDY
LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT
PROJECT ORGANISATION

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW OF REMOTE TECHNOLOGY
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF REMOTE CONTROL
2.4 REVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF REMOTE CONTROL CAR

CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SYSTEM
3.3 BLOCK DESCRIPTION
3.4 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS USED
3.5 CIRCUIT DESIGN OF REMOTE CONTROL CAR

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
4.2 ASSEMBLING OF SECTIONS
4.3 MOUNTING PROCEDURE
4.4 TESTING
4.5 RESULT
4.6 ECONOMIC OF THE PROJECT
4.7 RELIABILITY
4.8 MAINTAINABILITY
4.9 PROJECT EVALUATION
4.10 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS AND EVALUATION

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATION
5.3 REFERENCES

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Remote control car referred to as RC Car, RC is short for Radio control or Remote control. In Europe, Japan and Southeast Asian countries, the remote control model car race is a kind of sports competitions and a noble sport, even a high-tech hobby. This is a competition from age limit because enthusiasts who participate in this sport is aged from 8 to 80 years. This also suggests that the remote control cars is the same as remote control aircraft, whether adult or children can play. However, it has a certain degree of risk, because the remote control car is not a simple toy, its principle is the same as the real car. So, I still recommend that children would better to accompany by their parents.
Electric remote control car is primarily provided power by an electric motor. Due to powered by a battery, it has higher overall operating efficiency and excellent acceleration performance of vehicles. Because of Clean Energy, the vehicle maintenance is very convenient, just pay attention to the maintenance of transmission parts. But because the electric motor remote control car need high requirements of motor performance and battery performance, so the motor and battery  consumption is very high in the beginning, coupled with the electronic speed control, remote equipment costs.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Kids using manual car as fun or for recreation involved physical strength and sometimes can be hazardous in that they can be injured whenever the car crash with an object or obstacle. However, this device can overcome this problem. This device does not involve physical strength in that the motor is been controlled wirelessly using remote.
1.3 AIM OF THE PROJECT
This project was aimed at building a wireless remotely controlled motor car. It involves using a remote to control movement and direction of a car.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objective of this project is to design a low cost remote control toy or robot. There are so many projects available to make motor toys. But here we are providing a simple circuit with low cost electronics components.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is very useful to study the basics of wireless communication for electronics beginners. Mainly wireless car projects use two types of technologies Infra-Red (IR) and Radio Frequency (RF). IR remote control sends infrared rays to the car circuit. In case of IR remote control, line of sight with the receiving circuit is necessary and its range is only up to 10 meters. But in case of RF remote Radio Frequency waves plays the role, so signal can go through walls and are able to provide a range up to 35 meters.
1.6 BENEFIT OF THE STUDY
Playing with RC cars can significantly develop and improve a child’s visual-motor coordination. This is the ability to coordinate visual information with motor output. Along with this skill is visual perception, which is the ability to recognize, recall, discriminate and make sense of what we see.
RC car play enhances spatial awareness spatial intelligence and awareness skills, which results in increased dexterity. In addition, kids learn about cause-and-effect during play as they work out which buttons make the car go in each direction.
While playing with other children, it also teaches them to swerve around obstacles they can’t control.
And it is no stretch to say that playing with remote control cares promotes creativity and imagination. While adults may be content to have their cars zip around a parking lot, or engage in structured games or competition, kids tend to use their imagination and create make-believe settings and scenarios.
1.7 LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT
This device was able to provide a range up to 35 meters. To operate this device becomes a problem when the remote is faulty or whenever the battery of the remote runs down
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. RF Transmitter: Amplitude shift keying (ASKRF) transmitter module is a small PCB sub-assembly capable of transmitting a radio wave and modulating that wave to carry data. Transmitter modules are usually implemented alongside a microcontroller which will provide data to the module which can be transmitted.
2. RF Receiver: Amplitude shift keying (ASK RF) Receiver serial data and transmits it wirelessly through its RF antenna. The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps–10Kbps. RF receiver receives the transmitted data and it is operating at the same frequency as that of the transmitter.
3. HT12E Encoder IC: HT12E is used to encode the data for RF Transmitter and HT12D is used to decode the data received by RF receiver. Product Features. The HT12E Encoder IC are series of CMOSLS Is for Remote Control system applications. They are capable of Encoding 12 bit of information which consists of 8 address bits and 4data bits.
4. HT12D Decoder IC: HT12D is a 212series decoder IC (Integrated Circuit) for remote control applications manufactured by Holtek. It is commonly used for radio frequency (RF) wireless applications.
5. L293D Motor Driver: L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on either direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in any direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a single L293DIC.
6. LED: Light Emmiting Diode it serves as flow of connection from the remote control to the motor car.
Resistor 1k: It resist the current of the motor, which serves as brake to the remote car
Battery: 9V/12V it is been used to power the circuit.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter all the literature and terms related to this work are reviewed.
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW OF REMOTE TECHNOLOGY
By the early 1980s, the industry moved to infrared, or IR, remote technology. The IR remote works by using a low frequency light beam, so low that the human eye cannot see it, but which can be detected by a receiver in the TV. Zenith’s development of cable-compatible tuning and teletext technologies in the 1980s greatly enhanced the capabilities and uses for infrared television (TV) remotes. Today, remote control is a standard feature on other consumer electronics products, including video cassette recorders (VCRs), cable and satellite boxes, digital video disc players and home audio receivers. And the most sophisticated TV sets have remotes with as many as 50 buttons.
Zenith developed the world’s first wireless trackball TV remote control, called Z-Trak. The remote works like a computer mouse – click the ball and a cursor appears on the TV screen. Roll the ball and the cursor activates control menus hidden in different corners of the screen. Then, activate something from those menu bass, treble, contrast, colour temperature, and channel [5, 6, 7].
According to Sajidullah S. Khan, Anuja Khodustar and Koli, N.A who worked on Home automation appliance (2011) and striking results were obtained in terms of reduction in delay time between the transitions of streams from client to server using Java enabled program.
More so, Kai-Hung Liang, Kuo-Han Kan, and Szu-Chi Tien (2013) who carried out work on the precision positioning with shape-memory-alloy actuators. The result obtained using the inversion of non-linear model with model-reference-adaptive system (MRAS) was robust as regards to external disturbances and the positioning performance [1].
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF REMOTE CONTROL
The earliest example of remote control by radio waves was developed in 1898 by Nikola Tesla and described in his patent, U.S. Patent 613,809, named Method of an Apparatus for Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vehicle or Vehicles. In 1898, he demonstrated a radio-controlled boat to the public during an electrical exhibition at Madison Square Garden. Tesla called his boat a “teleautomaton”.
In 1903, Leonardo Torres Quevedo presented the Telekino at the Paris Academy of Science, accompanied by a brief, and making an experimental demonstration. In the same time he obtained a patent in France, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. The Telekino consisted of a robot that executed commands transmitted by electromagnetic waves. With the Telekino, Torres-Quevedo laid down modern wireless remote-control operation principles and was a pioneer in the field of remote control. In 1906, in the presence of the king and before a great crowd, Torres successfully demonstrated the invention in the port of Bilbao, guiding a boat from the shore. Later, he would try to apply the Telekino to projectiles and torpedoes, but had to abandon the project for lack of financing.
The first remote-controlled model aeroplane flew in 1932, and the use of remote control technology for military purposes was worked intensively during the Second World War, one result of this being the German Waterfall missile.
By the late 1930s, several radio manufacturers offered remote controls for some of their higher-end models. Most of these were connected to the set being controlled by wires, but the Philco Mystery Control (1939) was a battery-operated low-frequency radio transmitter, thus making it the first wireless remote control for a consumer electronics device.
Television remote controls
The first remote intended to control a television was developed by Zenith Radio Corporation in 1950. The remote, called “Lazy Bones”, was connected to the television by a wire. A wireless remote control, the “Flashmatic”, was developed in 1955 by Eugene Polley. It worked by shining a beam of light onto a photoelectric cell, but the cell did not distinguish between light from the remote and light from other sources. The Flashmatic also had to be pointed very precisely at the receiver in order to work.[7]In 1956, Robert Adler developed “Zenith Space Command”, a wireless remote. It was mechanical and used ultrasound to change the channel and volume. When the user pushed a button on the remote control, it clicked and struck a bar, hence the term “clicker”. Each bar emitted a different frequency and circuits in the television detected this sound. The invention of the transistor made possible cheaper electronic remotes that contained a piezoelectric crystal that was fed by an oscillating electric current at a frequency near or above the upper threshold of human hearing, though still audible to dogs. The receiver contained a microphone attached to a circuit that was tuned to the same frequency. Some problems with this method were that the receiver could be triggered accidentally by naturally occurring noises, and some people could hear the piercing ultrasonic signals. There was an incident in which a toy xylophone changed the channels on such sets because some of the overtones from the xylophone matched the remote’s ultrasonic frequency.
The impetus for a more complex type of television remote control came in 1973, with th upe development of the Ceefax teletext service by the BBC. Most commercial remote controls at that time had a limited number of functions, sometimes as few as three: next channel,

previous channel, and volume/off. This type of control did not meet the needs of teletext sets, where pages were identified with three-digit numbers. A remote control to select teletext pages would need buttons for each numeral from zero to nine, as well as other control functions, such as switching from text to picture, and the normal television controls of volume, channel, brightness, colour intensity, etc. Early teletext sets used wired remote controls to select pages, but the continuous use of the remote control required for teletext quickly indicated the need for a wireless device. So BBC engineers began talks with one or two television manufacturers, which led to early prototypes in around 1977–1978 that could control many more functions. ITT was one of the companies and later gave its name to the ITT protocol of infrared communication.
In 1980, a Canadian company, Viewstar, Inc., was formed by engineer Paul Hrivnak and started producing a cable TV converter with an infrared remote control. At the time the most popular remote control was the Starcom of Jerrold (a division of General Instruments) which used 40-kHz sound to change channels. The Viewstar converter was an immediate success, the millionth converter being sold on March 21, 1985, with 1.6 million sold by 1989.
In 2006, Hillcrest Labs introduced the Loop pointer, a remote control that used Hillcrest’s Freespace motion control technology to allow users to control their televisions with natural gestures. The Loop had just four buttons and a scroll wheel. Freespace-enabled remote controls use radio waves to communicate with a USB antenna connected to a computer that is also connected to the television, so they do not need to be pointed at the PC, or even have a direct line of sight.
Some television manufacturers now include Bluetooth remotes to control the television without requiring line of sight, overcoming the limited range in IR-based remotes.
Effect of the early television remote control
The remote allowed audiences, for the first time, to interact with their TV without using the buttons on the TV. They no longer watched programs just because they did not want to get up to change the channel. They could also channel surf during commercials, or turn the sound off.
The invention of the remote control has led to several changes in television programming. One was the creation of split screen credits. According to James Gleick, an NBC research team discovered that when the credits started rolling after a program, 25% of its viewers would change the channel before it was over. Because of this, the NBC 2000 unit invented the “squeeze and tease” which squeezed the credits onto one third of the screen while the final minutes of the broadcast aired simultaneously.
The remote control also led to an adjustment in commercial airings. Networks began to feel that they could not afford to have commercials between programs because it would detract viewers from staying tuned into their channel. Programmers decided to place commercials in the middle of programs to make the transition to the next show direct.
Other remote controls
In the 1980s Steve Wozniak of Apple started a company named CL 9. The purpose of this company was to create a remote control that could operate multiple electronic devices. The CORE unit (Controller Of Remote Equipment) was introduced in the fall of 1987. The advantage to this remote controller was that it could “learn” remote signals from different devices. It had the ability to perform specific or multiple functions at various times with its built-in clock. It was the first remote control that could be linked to a computer and loaded with updated software code as needed.
The CORE unit never made a huge impact on the market. It was much too cumbersome for the average user to program, but it received rave reviews from those who could. These obstacles eventually led to the demise of CL 9, but two of its employees continued the business under the name Celadon. This was one of the first computer-controlled learning remote controls on the market.
The proliferation of remote controls
By the early 2000s, the number of consumer electronic devices in most homes greatly increased, along with the number of remotes to control those devices. According to the Consumer Electronics Association, an average American home has four remotes. To operate a home theater as many as five or six remotes may be required, including one for cable or satellite receiver, VCR or digital video recorder (DVR/PVR), DVD player, TV and audio amplifier. Several of these remotes may need to be used sequentially but, as there are no accepted interface guidelines, the process is increasingly cumbersome.
Many specialists, including Jakob Nielsen, a renowned usability specialist, and Robert Adler, the inventor of the modern remote, note how confusing, unwieldy and frustrating the multiplying remotes have become. Because of this proliferation of remote controls, universal remote controls that manage multiple devices are becoming increasingly popular.
2.3 REVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF REMOTE CONTROL CAR
According to different classification of motivation, remote controlled car classified as below:
1. Oil move RC car: Oil move remote control model car is powered by a fuel engine, it also can be divided into classified according to the type of fuel. Fuel powered engine has the advantage of powerful, it has high degree of onomatopoeia vehicle model simulation, and can give players a real feel. The advantages is large fuel. If there is leakage, the maintenance will be very troublesome. In addition, since the fuel is added to increase the engine power output compounds that are corrosive, so vehicles need to do careful corrosion protection, maintenance cost is not small.
2. Electric remote control car: Electric remote control car is primarily provided power by an electric motor. Due to powered by a battery, it has the higher the overall operating efficiency and excellent acceleration performance of vehicles. Because of Clean Energy, the vehicle maintenance is very convenient, just pay attention to the maintenance of transmission parts. But because the electric motor remote control car need high requirements of motor performance and battery performance, so the motor and battery  consumption is very high in the beginning, coupled with the electronic speed control, remote equipment costs. If you want to run an electric model cars, you will be basically going to spend over 2000, which is one of reason to make electric remote control model car restrictions. According to the remote control car driver type and shape classification
3. SUV: SUV can be seen as a flat road car variant, the chassis is also a flat shape. But diameter of tires is much larger, suspension travel has also increased, which is mainly to increase the performance of the vehicle through performance. At the same time to increase vehicle power, SUV also need to put forward higher requirements in vehicle steering or other aspects of the vehicle on-board electronic systems, such as the need for greater torque servo steering gear to provide powerful steering torque, etc.. The advantages of SUV is that to retains the high-speed performance and increase through performance. That is a relatively funny remote control car.
4. Monster Truck: Do not think that big wheels can be called monster truck. Monster truck is relatively flat road cars and SUV, it has its own unique characteristics. In addition to large wheels, truck biggest feature is hardly a vehicle chassis, to support vehicles parts transmission and axle systems are generally appeared in the form of frames and side plates, as if all the parts are ” hanging” on the frame. The benefits is to improve the off-road performance. The bottom of the car can be made arch to meet the rugged road, so the car has high playability. According to the different speeds, it can be graded, ordinary monster and climb monster truck. The climb monster truck is mainly designed to climb the rugged road, a huge vehicle torque, but in order to meet the torque and stability, the speed will be very slow. vehicle work requirement is very high, the price does not poor.
5. Flat road car: Flat road vehicles are concerned for RVs and cars, because of its low chassis, chassis plate-like, vehicles through poor performance, but the straight line stability and acceleration are the most superior. Two -wheel-drive flat road car is mainly used for racing, flat road four-wheel drive sports car for racing, drift race, etc.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this project we are designing an RF remote control. For that we are using an ASK transmitter receiver module. Microcontroller is avoided in the circuit to make it cost effective. ASK module is used as the remote transmitter, two IC’s HT12E and HT12D is used for Encoding and Decoding. Circuit diagram and circuit explanation given below will help the reader to understand how a remote control car.
3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF REMOTE CONTROL CAR
Before carrying out any project, the block diagram must be drawn and fully understood. Block diagram gives a pictorial understanding of any work. The block diagram of the system is as below:

Block diagram of remote control car

3.3 BLOCK DESCRIPTION
Transmitter Section:
Controlling Switches: Four button switches are used in the remote control to move the car backward, forward, left and right.
HT12E Encoder IC: It is a 212 series encoder IC used for wireless communication applications. It is mainly used to convert 12 bit parallel data (8 address bits and 4 data bits) to serial out so that it can be transmitted using a transmitter Module.
RF Tx Module: 434 MHz ASK transmitter module for transmission. It is capable of providing a data rate of about 8kbps.
Battery: 3V button cell is used to power the remote.
Receiver Section:
RF Rx Module: A high sensitivity 434 MHz ASK Receiver module for receiving the data from remote control.
HT12D Decoder IC: It is a 1212 series decoder IC used for wireless communication applications. It converts the serial input to parallel out.
Motor Driver: L293D motor driver is used to drive two motors. L293D provides bidirectional drive current up to 600mA at voltages from 4.5V to 36V.
Motors: Here two BO motors are used which are driven by the motor driver L293D and both of them are connected to robotic wheels to move the car.
Battery: Receiver section need more power than the remote control circuit. So 9V/12V battery is required to power the circuit.
3.4 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS USED
Only basic electronic components were used here for the project. All datasheets and link to buy the components online are provided below:
Resistor:
1K Resistor: 8
Semiconductors:
HT12E Encoder IC: 1
HT12D Decoder IC: 1
Modules:
ASK RF Transmitter: 1
ASK RF Receiver: 1
L293D Motor Driver: 1    
Miscellaneous:
3V Button Cell with holder (Remote): 1
9V/12V Battery with holder (Receiver/Car): 1         
Button Switch: 4
BO Motor: 2
Robotic Wheels: 4
3.5 CIRCUIT DESIGN OF REMOTE CONTROL CAR
 The circuit diagram of the device is as below:

Rc car circuit diagram with remote control

RC car circuit diagram with remote transmitter
Circuit design of this remote control car is simple and is of low cost as we are not using a microcontroller in it. Main components are two communication ICs (HT12D and HT12E) and an ASK RF transmitter receiver module.
RC car circuit diagram with remote transmitter is designed in a compact way to make it as small as possible. Remote uses four button switches (S1, S2, S3, and S4) to control the toy. Digital data’s from the switches are encoded by the HT12E encoder IC and are transmitted to the receiver through ASK RF Module. When we press these switches, 4 data bits and 8 address bits are serially encoded and output through the pin “DOUT” is given to the 434 MHz Transmitter.  Circuit is so simple due to the simple coupling of ASK module with HT12E and HT12D pair. Remote control is power by a 3V button cell.          
Receiver section receives the signal with the help of 434 MHz ASK module and provides it to the decoder IC. “DIN” pin of HT12D gets the data from RF module and checks it three times before decoding. And if received address data matches with the encoder address data, then IC will decode the data bits and provides it directly to L293D motor driver. This driver is used to control the motors forward and backward according to the received signal. An LED is connected to the valid transmit pin of Decoder IC to indicate a valid transmission. 
Left Motor Direction
Right Motor Direction
Direction of Car

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
In building this project, the following procedures were properly considered,
I. Purposing of the entire materials / Components needed
ii. Resistance check of the components bought with the help of ohmmeter before making the necessary connection with the components
iii. Drafting out a schematic diagram or how to arrange the materials / components.
iv. Testing the completed system to see if the design works and
v. Finally, implementation of design of the project.
Having procured all the materials, I processed into the arrangement of the components into the Vero board but we could not laid the ics directly on the bread board because the heat soldering iron emits while soldering, proper soldering of the components then followed. The components were all soldered into the board after which it was correctly confirmed done.
4.2 ASSEMBLING OF SECTIONS
Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections of this system, the assembling into the casing followed. The sections were properly laid out and assembled into the casing where the general coupling and linkages into the peripheral devices took place.
4.3 MOUNTING PROCEDURE
The transformer was bolted directly to the bottom of the case. This was followed by mounting of the power section of the circuit board. A gap was made between one mounting and the successive ones. This is necessary to avoid overcrowding. The vero board is also mounted at the upper side of the case. The resistors, transistors, and other components used were mounted on the vero board. All the accessories were highly fixed to avoid slack that may result in the process of operations
4.4 TESTING
After implementing the circuit on a project board, the different sections of the complete system were tested to ensure that they were in good operating condition. The continuity test carried out is to ensure that the circuit or components are properly linked together. This test was carried out before power was supplied to the circuit. Finally, after troubleshooting has been done on the whole circuit, power was supplied to the circuit. Visual troubleshooting was also carried out at this stage to ensure that the components do not burn out.
4.5 RESULT
The results obtained during the construction states after necessary troubleshooting were satisfactory. The system was able to respond to its operation.
4.6 ECONOMIC OF THE PROJECT
Although this project has not been given due recognition by the authority concerned, whenever this equipment finds its use the case is relatively cheap with a good efficiency and improves on its reliability. Due attention will be given to the viability of this project reliability maintainability and also the evaluation.
4.7 RELIABILITY
In the design of the remote control motor car with bidirectional rotation, reliability is taken into consideration to improve on the system performance. Here the concept of reliability has been associated, in a qualitative way with good design endurance consistence quality and dependability in recent years however, the much greater complexity of the line selector and the seriousness of a failure in the system have made it necessary to attempt not only to improve the reliability of the equipment but also to assesses it in qualitative terms.
In order to appreciate some of the difficulties which are involved in the designed of this project, imagine a discussion concerning the relative merits of remote control motor car in the first place the specifications of the picture quality and staying. The discussion may then turn to the likelihood of faults developing in the sets. This is important not only because of the annoyance caused to the viewer by a failure but pay a higher initial cost for an automatic change over switch in return for an assurance that the extra cost will mean smaller maintenance costs. Therefore, from this little explanation, “Reliability can be defined as the characteristics of a component or of a system which may be expressed by the probability that it will perform a required function under started conditions for a specified period of time.
4.8 MAINTAINABILITY
In this design and construction of this project (remote control motor car), it is usually very important to note that maintainability is another area or aspect taken into consideration since high initial or production cost will lead to a low maintenance cost. The remote control motor car has a high input output-performance, but relatively cheap, easy and low maintenance cost.
Therefore maintainability of the probability that a device will be restored to operational effectiveness within a given period of time when the maintenance action as performance in accordance with prescribed procedures”.
4.9 PROJECT EVALUATION
Considering the cost of this project one must note that fact that it is not mass production. As such to single handedly manufacture it without any industrial aided production machine will in no doubt in our much expenses, the initial market survey did not prove successful due to irregular price of item such as those used in this project.
4.10 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS AND EVALUATION
The expenditure made in purchasing all the components / materials and quantity used in building this project is tabulated as show below.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 CONCLUSION
In this work, remote controlled motor car was implemented. The proposed system was built and a satisfactory result was achieved. Controller executes the load to rotate “FORWARD” and “REVERSE” direction depending upon the input we are giving the virtual terminal via the remote.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The device has been designed, tested and system was able to respond to its operation. This work was built with quality wiring and contains many connections, I recommend that if failure occur, it should be troubleshoot by a qualify personnel along with the circuits diagram.
This project was built for Educational purposes. If one wants to use it for industrial or home applications, I recommend that a hook should be attached to the casing that would allow fixing the system on the wall.
Working on this topic as my project is a good idea and it comes at the right time. I am suggesting that this particular topic should also be given to other students both in higher and lower class.

REFERENCES

1. Explain briefly the following terms in overhead transmission line
   I. SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE: A transmission line is said to be short when the distance about 50km and the line voltage is corporative low at less than 20kv.
   II. MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE: Transmission line is said to be medium when the distance is about 50km-150km and the voltage is greater than 20kv but less than 100kv
   III. PROTECTIVE SYSTEM: This is the act of protecting a circuit against overload and short circuit.
   With the aid of a diagram explain general construction of a 3-core cable
   I. Conductor: is the part that carries electric current
   II. PAPER Insulator: this is the insulator that surrounds the conductor, which therefore prevent current leakage.
   III. LEAD SHEATH: it is the part that protects the paper insulator
   IV. BEDDING: is used to prevent the lead sheet from rusting.
   V. ARMOURING: is the part protecting the bedding.
   VI. SERVING: is the outer part of the insulator which protect the cable from mechanical damage.
2. State the fuse and state the components part of the fuse with a suitable diagram
   Fuse: is a short piece of metal insert in the circuit which melt when excessive current flows through it and just break itself.
   B. Define the following terms
   I. Fusing current: is the current of which the fuse element will melt or the minimum current of which the element will melt and thereby disconnect the circuit protected by it.
   II. Current rating: is the maximum current the fuse will carry without deterioration
   III. Fusing factor: is the ratio of the minimum fusing current to the current rating of the fuse element
   Fuse factor = minimum fusing current/current rating

C. State three (3) characteristics of fuse element
I. Low melting point e.g tin
II. High conductivity e.g copper
C. Low cost e.g lead

3. Define circuit breaker and state four types of circuit breaker
   Circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can make or break a circuit manually or by remote control under normal condition
   B. State four types of circuit breaker
   I. Oil circuit breaker
   B. Gas circuit breaker
   III. Miniature circuit breaker
   IV. Air circuit breaker

C. State four (4) differences between fuse and circuit breaker

Fuse only work in one time and the element will be replaced
Circuit breaker work over and over again

Fuse time operation is about 0.02secs
Circuit breaker time operation is about 0.5secs

Fuse element can be tempered with when replacing
Circuit breaker can’t be tempered with

Fuse element are always replaced after operation
Circuit breaker don’t need replacement

4. List four types of insulators and sketch any one(1)
   1) Pin type insulator
   2) Suspension type insulator
   3) shackle insulator

Write short note on insulating material
Insulating materials are the material which do not allow electric energy to pass through them. They’re also used on electric poles for supporting and separating the conductor on the pole.
Examples of insulating material
I. Dry wood
II. Glass
III. Porcelain

Explain the difference between feeders, distributor and service mains
I. Feeder: is a device that serve as a protection for the transformer and distribution line.
II. Distribution mains: This is the transmission line that comes out of the transformer usually on low tension poles and carry a voltage between 220v – 414v
III. Service mains: This is the mains which is used to tap from the distribution mains to the end users.

5. Define protective relay and draw a typical relay circuit
   PROTECTIVE RELAY: is a system used in protecting an electric circuit

B) List and briefly explain four (4) requirement for power system protection.
I. Reliable, II. Stable, III. It must be timely, IV. It must be selective
I. Reliable: The protection system must provide it function when required to avoid damage of equipment, life and property
II. Stable: The protection system must not react to fault in neighbouring zone and shall not react to non fault situation
III. It must be timely: The rate at which protecting system will react to fault must be fast as possible in other to stabilise the overall power system and to reduce the damage of life and property
IV. It must be selective: only the affected point of the power system will be disconnected
C) State the purpose of protection system
I. To protect equipment
II. To protect against overload
III. To improve system stability
IV. To restore number of direction
V. To protect life and property
VI. To separate faulty section from power supply
D) List four (4) types of protection by object
I. Line protection
II. Transformer protection
III. Generator protection
IV. Earth protection

What is receptacle and Block diagram in Electrical graphics

What is receptacle in electrical graphics: Receptacle is an opening of series of opening connected to a wired power source that is supposed to power electrical components and equipment.
BLOCK DIAGRAM: Is a kind of electrical drawing that represent the principle components of a complex system in the form of block interconnected by lines that represent their relation. Block diagram is a diagram of system in which the principle parts or functions are represented by blocks connected by line that show the relationship on the blocks.

What’s relay and DPDT

(I)RELAY: A relay is an electrical operated switch. For example a 9v battery circuit connected to the coil, can switch 230v A.C mains circuit.

A Relay: is an electrical operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a single or multiple control signal and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch may have any number of contact terminals. The switch may have any number of contacts in multiple forms. Such as Make contact, break contact or the combination of the two.What is Graphics symbols: A graphic symbol is a visually perceptible figure with a particular meaning used to transmit information independently of language.

What is a TRANSFORMER

Give short definition of the following; resistor, transistor, capacitor, diode, wire, cell and motor

1. Resistor : it is a device that obstruct the flow of electricity passing through a conductor. For example to limit a current passing through a LED, a resistor is used with capacitor in timing circuit.
2. Transistor: Is a device that aids in amplifying current
3. Capacitor: this are device that stores charge
4. Diode: This is a sensitive electronic components which allows current to pass in only one direction. It has two lead namely cathode and anode.
5. Wire: it serves as an entrance to pass electricity easily from one place to another.
6. Cell: it supply electrical energy
7. Motor: A transistor which convert electrical energy to kinetic energy

Definition of economics

WHY IS ECONOMICS REGARDED AS SCIENCE AND NOT ART

BASIC CONCEPT OF ECONOMICS

1. Scarcity
2. Choice
3. Scale of preference
4. Opportunity cost
   A. Scarcity: simply means the resources is not enough to satisfy the need of the individual
   B. Choice: choice simply means the problem to scarcity
   C. Scale of preference: Is the systematic arrangements of wants or ends in their order of preference/priority/importance. E.g payment of salaries, building of schools, construction if roads and bridges, scholarship. The one, that is more important to the country will be done first.
   D. Opportunity cost: Refer to as the forgone alternative or real cost of the choice we’ve made.
   ECONOMICS PROBLEM
   A. What to produce
   B. How to produce
   C. Whom to produce
   D. How the resources will be used efficiently
   A. What to produce: Society must decide what to produce and in what quantity based on the available resources.
   B. How to produce: it has to do with the method of technology. For instance we’ve labour intensive and capital intensive
   Labour intensive→ use of labour instead of machine
   Capital intensive→ use of machine instead of labour.
   Importance of studying economics
   A. Since economics is a discipline i.e a body of knowledge, it is necessary to study it as the matter of seeking knowledge for its own sake.
   B. Some understanding of economics is necessary so that we can be well informed citizen.
   C. Many of our day to day problems and discussion in the society have some economics aspect and it’s only necessary to know of this, so as to discuss intelligently the study of economics.
   D. It enables an individual to understand better relationship between him and his fellow human being in his effort to make a living.
   E. Economics provides us with skills ( tools and knowledge) needed to make rational decision in our day to day activities.
   F. It enables us to understand and appreciate various government policies when choices are to be made and it provides rational guide to firms and government in the allocation of resources.
   G. It enables us to be able to apply the principle to solve practical questions and thus avoid spending unnecessary money.
   H. Economics is a subject that can be enjoyed because it has intrinsic values.
   I. It provides job opportunities: the wide range of skills develop through studying economics especially to degree level, open up many divers job opportunities to graduates and even non-graduates.
   BRANCHES OF ECONOMICS
   A. Micro economics
   B. Macro economics
   C. Positive Economics
   D. Normative economics
   A. Micro economics: This deal with the decision making of an individual. By Adam Smith
   B. Macro economics: It is concerned with the overall importance of economic, firm or house. By John maynarot Keynes

THE DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS
FIRST SEMESTER TEST 2020/2021
CLASS: ND1 civil Engineering
COURSE CODE: MTH 111
COURSE TITLE: Algebra and Element

1. 3^x = 7; XLog3base3 = Log7base3
   Recall, Log3base3 = 1 (reason is that, Log of the same base = 1)
   X × 1 = Log7base3
   X = Log7base3 ( Find Log 7 base 3 ) [check the picture above, to get the clearer view of the question]X = 1.78
   (ii) 2^x + 2^-x = 2
   Solution
   2^x + 1/2^X = 2 [ any number raise to power minus sign(-) is inverse of that number]2^x + 1/2^X = 2 ( find l.c.m)
   (4x^2 + 1)/2x =2 [ cross multiply ]4x^2 + 1 =2 × 2x
   4x^2 + 1 = 4x
   4x^2 – 4x + 1 =0
   Using factorization method,
   (4x^2 – 2x) –( 2x + 1) =0 [ hint: what’s common in the both side]2x (2x – 1) -1(2x-1) = 0
   (2x – 1)(2x-1) = 0
   (2x – 1) appears twice
   2x – 1 = 0
   2x = 1 [ divide both side by 2]X = ½(twice)

To check if our answer is correct, put X as ½ into the real equation

2x + 1/2X = 2
2½ + 1/2½ = 2
1.414 + 0.707 = 2 ( approximately)

Therefore; the answer is correct

b. simplify Log125

base ⅕

(II) Prove that LOGaBASEb × LOGbBASEc × LOGcBASEa = 1

We’ll also apply the same thing to this, only that their bases will be different

LOGaBASEb × LOGbBASEc × LOGcBASEa
(LogaBASEa ÷ LogbBASEb) × (LogbBASEb ÷ LogcBASEc) ×( LogcBASEc ÷ LogaBASEa)
As we know that; Log of the same base = 1

C. If Log2BASE5 = 0.431 and Log3BASE5 =0.682, evaluate Log4/9BASE5

Solution
evaluate Log4/9BASE5 = Log4BASE5 ÷ Log9BASE5
Log2²BASE5 ÷ Log3²BASE5 = 2Log2BASE5 ÷ 2Log3BASE5
USE CALCULATOR

(2 × 0.431) ÷ ( 2 × 0.682)
0.862/1.364 = 0.632( approximately)

Four service methods that can be used to detect faults in electronics equipment. ( 2 marks)

(1) CIRCUIT TRACING

A. Know/study mode of operation.

B. To find out the fault.

(2) Troubleshooting

(3) Fault isolating

(4) Observation test method [ 2 marks]

EXPLAIN TWO OF THE METHODS LISTED IN QUESTION ABOVE

(1) CIRCUIT TRACING: are split into two;

(a) Know/study mode of operation – To be able to know the general mode of operation, sequential operation of each point, the regular noise from the machine, normal working temperature and normal range of the regulating or measuring instrument.

(b) To find out the fault – This is always cumbersome, tiring and time wasting doing it physically.

(2) TROUBLESHOOTING: This is a method where by fault is purposely introduce into a system in order to watch the behavior under a faulty condition. It might be by;

(I) removal of part

This method will help in knowing how to Carry out repairs or replacement of bad points. It helps to predict the symptoms and signs of a fault.

(3) FAULT ISOLATING: A fault circuit is disconnected from the rest of the system in order to carry out repair services. If possible other parts may continue to function.

(4) OBSERVATION TEST METHOD: consist of the following;

(a) VISUAL— ( sense of sight): To detect loose live terminal, burnt resistor or blown fuse which are indication of overload, short circuit or earth fault.

(b) TOUCH — feeling: By placing ones finger or palm can make one to know whether there’s a rise in temperature, vibration or humming.

c) SMELL — To enable one to know burnt or overheating.

d) HEARING — sound coming from a machine can enable one to suspect or know the type of fault or an unusual sound/humming.

A series circuit having R= 40 ohm, and inductance of 0.3H suddenly connected across a 150V supply through a switch. Find;

I. The rate of change of current after closing the switch

II. The steady state value of the current.

III. The the rate of change of current I(t) = V/R – V/R . 1.

III. The value of current after 7 milliseconds

IV. The time for current to attain half it’s final value

Solutions

R = 40 ohm, V = 150V, L = 0.3H

The rate of change of current I(t) = V/R – V/R . e–¹³³·³t

1. Rate of change of current after closing the switch

di(t)/ d(t), when t = 0

di(t)/ d(t) = 3.75 – 3.75e–¹³³·³t

Then differentiate,

0 – 3.75×-133.3e–¹³³·³<⁰>

0 – 499.88e⁰

0 – 499.88 × 1

0 – 499.88

= 499.88 A/S (Amperes per second)

2. The steady state value of the current

Base current (Ib) = V/R = 150/40

= 3.75A

3. The value of current after 7 milliseconds

The rate of change of current (It) = 3.75 – 3.75e–¹³³·³t

when t = 0.007seconds

The rate of change of current (It) = 3.75 – 3.75e–¹³³·³×⁰·⁰⁰⁷ (It) = 3.75 – 3.75e–⁰·⁹³

(It) = 3.75 – 3.75e–⁰·⁹³NOTE: e–⁰·⁹³ Means exponential of 0.93 (how to get it, press (in) in your calculator with 0.93. You’ll have 0.117)

(It) = 3.75 – 3.75(0.117)

(It) = 3.75 – 0.44

(It) = 3.31A

4.The time for current to attain half its final value

Base current (Ib) = 3.75A,

Ib/2 » 3.75/2 » 1.875A

1.875 = 3.75-3.75e–¹³³·³t

Collect like terms

3.75e–¹³³·³t = 3.75-1.875

3.75e–¹³³·³t = 1.875

e–¹³³·³t = 1.875/3.75

e–¹³³·³t = 0.5

-133.3t = in(0.5)

t = [-1/133.3 ] in(0.5)

t = -7.5 × 10–³ × -0.69

t = 5.2 × 10–³ seconds » 5.2milliSeconds. [final answer]

WHAT’S THE FUNCTION OF FOCUS ADJUSTMENT AND ELECTROSTATIC FOCUSING IN MONOCHROME TV

THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL MONOCHROME RECEIVER.

1) FOCUS ADJUSTMENT: The focus adjustment is the electron beam. The electron beam must be focused to small ports/spot light on the screen usually focus is sharp on the center area of a tube.
FUNCTION: Older picture used in magnetic focusing with a focused signal on the neck of the tube behind the deflection yoke.

2) ELECTROSTATIC FOCUSING: Is omitted from a cathode tends to diverge because they repel each other. However the electron can be forced to converge to a point by an electric or to a magnetic field. So the voltage focused in the beam to a spot is called a crossed point beyond the control grid.

Related content
EXPLAIN IN EIGHT (8) STEPS THE SERVER INTERNET CONFIGURATION OF COMPUTER USING WINDOWS 7 OPERATING SYSTEMS.

EIGHT STEPS THE SERVER INTERNET CONFIGURATION IS SET-UP (CTE COURSE TITLE)
Answer
1). Log on to the host computer as Administrator or as owner.

2). Click start, and then click control panel.

3). Click Network and internet connections then Click Network connections

5). Click properties and Click the advanced tab.

Next question

EXPLAIN IN SIX (6) STEPS THE CLIENT INTERNET CONFIGURATION OF COMPUTER USING WINDOW 7 OPERATING SYSTEM.

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TYPES OF INSULATOR IN POWER II

DESCRIBE THREE (3) TYPE OF INSULATOR USED FOR OVERHEAD LINE [ 3 marks]

1 PIN TYPE INSULATOR: Are made in piece up to 25KV and above for up to 50KV only. You can add up the voltage by adding one more piece, they become uneconomical for higher voltage.

2. SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATOR: Are made in form of disc and a number of them used in a flexible string for the voltage range desires with the conductor being attached to the lower end for 400KV lines, 19 discs of overall length 3.84m are used.

3 STRAIN TYPE INSULATOR: Are obtained often a string of suspension insulator is used in a horizontal position. They are mainly used in line terminal and crossed end roads.

B) State with reason, which of the insulator in (Q4a) is suitable for high voltage (HV) lines

Answer
STRAIN TYPE INSULATOR

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A BLOG FOR STUDENTS

WHAT IS INTEGRATION BY PARTS?
Integration by parts is used to integrate the product of two or more functions. The two functions to be integrated f(x) and g(x) are of the form

f(x).g(x). Thus, it can be called a product rule of integration. Among the two functions, the first function f(x) is selected such that its derivative formula exists, and the second function g(x) is chosen such that an integral of such a function exists.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS FORMULA DERIVATION
The proof of integration by parts can be obtained from the formula of the derivative of the product of two functions. For the two functions f(x) and g(x), the derivative of the product of these two functions is equal to the sum of the derivatives of the first functions multiplied with the second function, and the derivative of the second function multiplied by the first function.

Let us derive the integration by parts formula using the product rule of differentiation. Consider two functions u and v. Let their product be y. i.e., y = uv. Applying the product rule of differentiation, we get

d/dx (uv) = u (dv/dx) + v (du/dx)

We will rearrange the terms here.

u (dv/dx) = d/dx (uv) – v (du/dx)

Integrating on both sides with respect to x,

∫ u (dv/dx) (dx) = ∫ d/dx (uv) dx – ∫ v (du/dx) dx

By cancelling the terms,

∫ u dv = uv – ∫ v du

Hence the integration by parts formula is derived.

Visualizing Integration by Parts

Integration of Logarithmic Function
∫ logx.dx = ∫ logx.1.dx

= logx. ∫1.dx – ∫ ((logx)’.∫ 1.dx).dx

=logx.x -∫ (1/x .x).dx

=xlogx – ∫ 1.dx

=x logx – x + C

Integration of Inverse Trigonometric Function
∫ tan-1x.dx = ∫tan-1x.1.dx

= tan-1x.∫1.dx – ∫((tan-1x)’.∫ 1.dx).dx

= tan-1x. x – ∫(1/(1 + x2).x).dx

= x. tan-1x – ∫ 2x/(2(1 + x2)).dx

= x. tan-1x – ½.log(1 + x2) + C

Formulas Related to Integration by Parts
The following formulas have been derived from the integration by parts formula and are helpful in the process of integrations of various algebraic expressions.

∫ ex(f(x) + f'(x)).dx = exf(x) + C
∫√(x2 + a2).dx = ½ . x.√(x2 + a2)+ a2/2. log|x + √(x2 + a2)| C
∫√(x2 – a2).dx =½ . x.√(x2 – a2) – a2/2. log|x +√(x2 – a2) | C
∫√(a2 – x2).dx = ½ . x.√(a2 – x2) + a2/2. sin-1 x/a + C
☛ Also Check: https://www.cuemath.com/calculus/integration-by-parts/
Example

Find ∫xe-x dx

Integrating by parts (with v = x and du/dx = e-x), we get:

-xe-x – ∫-e-x dx (since ∫e-x dx = -e-x)

= -xe-x – e-x + constant

We can also sometimes use integration by parts when we want to integrate a function that cannot be split into the product of two things. The trick we use in such circumstances is to multiply by 1 and take du/dx = 1.

EXAMPLE

Find ∫ ln x dx

To integrate this, we use a trick, rewrite the integrand (the expression we are integrating) as 1.lnx . We then let v = ln x and du/dx = 1 .

Hence ∫ ln x dx = x ln x – ∫ x (1/x) dx
= x lnx – ∫ dx
= x lnx – x + constant
Also check https://revisionmaths.com/advanced-level-maths-revision/pure-maths/calculus/integration-part

Youtube

Solved Examples On Integration By Parts
Example 1: Find the integral of x2ex by using the integration by parts formula.

Solution:

Using LIATE, u = x2 and dv = ex dx.

Then, du = 2x dx, v = ∫ ex dx = ex.

Using one of the integration by parts formulas,

∫ u dv = uv – ∫ v du

∫ x2 ex dx = x2 ex – ∫ ex (2x) dx

= x2 ex – 2 ∫ x ex dx

Applying integration by parts formula again to evaluate ∫ x ex dx,

∫ x2 ex dx = x2 ex – 2 (x ex – ∫ ex dx) = x2 ex – 2 x ex + 2 ex + C

= ex (x2- 2 x + 2)+ C

Answer: ∫ x2 ex dx = = ex (x2- 2 x + 2)+ C

Example 2: Find the integral of x sin2x, by using integration by parts formula.

Solution:

To find the integration of the given expression we use the integration by parts formula: ∫ uv.dx = u∫ v.dx -∫( u’ ∫ v.dx).dx

Here u = x, and v = Sin2x

∫x sin2x. dx

=x∫sin2xdx – d/dx. x.∫ sin2xdx. dx

=x. -cos2x/2 – ∫(1.-cos2x/2). dx

=-cos2x/2. dx + 1/2 cos2xdx

=-xcos2x/2 + sin2x/4 + C

Answer: Thus ∫x sin2x dx = -x cos2x/2 +sin 2x/4+ C

Also check: on YouTube

Example 3: Evaluate the integral ∫ x ln x dx using integration by parts.

Solution:

First Method:

Using LIATE, u = ln x and v = x.

Using one of the formulas of integration by parts,

∫ uv dx = u ∫ v dx – ∫ (u’ ∫ v dx) dx

∫ x ln x dx = ln x ∫ x dx – ∫ (1/x) (∫ x dx) dxU

= ln x (x2/2) – ∫ (1/x) (x2/2) dx

= (x2 ln x)/2 – (1/2) ∫ x dx

= (x2 ln x) / 2 – (1/2) (x2/2) + C

= (x2 ln x) /2 – (x2 / 4) + C

=(x2/4)(2 ln x -1) + C

Second Method:

Using LIATE, u = ln x and dv = x dx.

Then du = (1/x) dx and v = ∫ x dx = x2/2

Using one of the formulas of integration by parts,

∫ u dv = uv – ∫ v du

∫ x ln x dx = ln x (x2/2) – ∫ (x2/2) (1/x) dx

= (x2 ln x)/2 – (1/2) ∫ x dx

= (x2 ln x) / 2 – (1/2) (x2/2) + C

= (x2 ln x) /2 – (x2 / 4) + C

= (x2/4)(2 ln x -1) + C

Answer: By both the methods, ∫ x ln x dx =View Answer > on YouTube

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Practice Questions on Integration by Parts
Q 1. Find ∫ sin-1x. dx using integration by parts.

x sin-1x -√(x2 -1 )+ C.
x sin, -1, x -√(x, 2, -1, , )+ C.

x sin-1x + √(1-x2) + C.
x sin, -1, x + √(1-x, 2, ) + C.

x sin-1x -√(1-x2) + C.
x sin, -1, x -√(1-x, 2, ) + C.

x sin-1x -√(x2 -1 ) + C.
x sin, -1, x -√(x, 2, -1, , ) + C.
Q 2. For which of the following integral expressions we need to apply Integration by Parts formula.

∫ log sinx dx
∫ log sinx dx

∫ x ex . dx
∫ x e, x , . dx

∫ cosec2 x. dx
∫ cosec, 2 , x. dx

∫ tan x. dx
∫ tan x. dx
Check Answer > on YouTube

FAQs on Integration by Parts
What is Integration by Parts?

What Is Integration By Parts Formula?
How To Derive Integration By Parts Formula?
Why do we Use Integration by Parts Formula?
What are the Different Techniques of Integration in addition to Integration by Parts?
How to Know When to Use Integration by Parts?
Which of the Function Should be Made as ‘U’ in Integration by Parts?
What is the Difference between Integration by Parts and Substitution?
How to Apply Limits in Integration by Parts?
What is the Application of Integration by Parts?
What Are the Applications of the Integration By Parts Formula?
How To Know When To Use the Integration By Parts Formula?

Integration by parts
Use Uv Method To Find Integration By Parts

Calculus
Differentiation and Integration Formulas
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acceleration due to gravity= 9.81m/s²

Head= 300m

Efficiency rate= 75%

Velocity= 63000kg/s

P= ghrv

P = acceleration due to gravity × Head × Efficiency rate × Velocity

P = 9.81 × 300 ×

 × 63000

    =139,056,750

     = 140MN

QUESTION ONE

The four parameters that determine the performance of a transmission line is conductance, resistance, inductance and capacitance.

1. RESISTANCE: Resistance is stated in ohms per meter length of a line and its represent the imperfection of a line. In other words, it obstruct or resist the flow of  current in a circuit. It’s measured in ohms [Ω]
2. CAPACITANCE: It is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference between the two plates. Its measured in farads [F]. Or it can be define as the ability of a capacitor to store charge.

1. INDUCTANCE: Is a property in which an inductor, exhibit an opposition to the current flowing through it. Or it can be define as the process in which an E.M.F is produce to oppose the current flowing through it. It’s measured in henry [H]
2. CONDUCTANCE:  It is an ability of an element to conduct electric current, it is measured in siemens[S]

FOR FURTHER READING ONLY ON PAST QUESTION

Advantages of hydropower station

2011/2012

list five (3) advantages and three (3) disadvantages of a hydro power plant.

Answers
(1) Renewable: hydro-electric energy is renewable, that means hydro-electric energy can be generated again after been used up.

However, there’s only a limited number of suitable reservoirs where hydro-electric power plants can be built and even less places where such projects are profitable.
Pollution free: it is clean and good. There is no pollution at all.

(2) Reliable: it is very reliable because it has sufficient energy. A house, shop or industry can use once there is sufficient water in the dam.

(3) Flexible: hydro-electric power can be tapped or taken to different households or without difficulty and adjusting water flow and output of electricity is easy.
Safe: compared to among others, fossil fuel and nuclear energy, hydro-electricity is much safer.

Disadvantages
(1) It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.
(2) There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount of water due to dependence on weather condition.
(3) Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the plant.
(4) It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plants is located in hilly areas which are far away from the consumer.

Nuclear power station

(2) There are large deposits of nuclear fuels that can ensure the continuity of electrical energy for thousands of years are available all over the world.

(3) It can be located near the load centers because it does not require large quantities of water and need not be near coal mines. And therefore, the cost of primary distribution is reduced.

(4) This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power.

(5) It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used for producing bulk electrical power.

(6) A nuclear power requires less space as compared to any other type of power station.

(7) The amount of fuel required is small.
Disadvantages
(1) The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous amount of radioactive pollution.

(2) The erection and commissioning of the plant requires greater technical know-how.

(3)The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other type of plants.

(4) The fuel used is cost and is difficult to renew/recover.

You can also get relative topics on Advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric energy and nuclear power energy.

WIDE AREA NETWORK

WAN]:Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone line (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite link, and data packet carrier services. It can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex using special routing protocols and filters to minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

MAN consists of a computer network across an entire city college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to convert several LANs together to form a bigger network. It is specifically designed for security purpose.

VIRTUAL PRIVATE Network

[VPN]: VPN is a technology that allows a network administrator to create a secure connection over a loss-secure network between computer and the internet. It protects information privacy by allowing the administrator to anonymously appear to be in any network. A VPN is beneficial because it guarantees an appropriate level of security and privacy to the connected systems. This is extremely useful when the existing network infrastructure alone cannot support it.

APPROVED CONTINUATION OF ACADEMIC CALENDAR FOR THE FIRST SEMESTER 2022/2023 ACADEMIC SESSION FOR ND I & ND II, HND I & II (MORNING & EVENING)

Each Semester includes 15 weeks of instruction and two weeks of final examinations with minor adjustments where needed. The long vacation session includes a one-eight – one-six week- and two four week periods of instruction. Because of the prolonged 2020 Covid-19 pandemic lockdown, the University continues to make efforts to recover into a more regular academic calendar.

The academic year consists of the First and the Second Semesters and One eight-week summer or long vacation session.

Second Semester, 2022-2023:

Academic Calendar 2023/2024 SESSION:

The academic year consists of the First and the Second Semesters and One eight-week summer or long vacation session.
Each Semester includes 15 weeks of instruction and ten days of final examinations. The long vacation session includes a one-eight – one-six week- and two four week periods of instruction.

First Semester, 2023-2024

Second Semester, 2023-2024

Have you been searching for the UNIABUJA Admission Catchment Area?, University Of Abuja Catchment Area? UNIABUJA ELDS? UNIABUJA Catchment Area Cut-off mark? What Is The Catchment Area For UNIABUJA?

Are you an aspirant who wants to apply for admission to the University Of Abuja (UNIABUJA)? Does UNIABUJA Use Catchment?
If Yes, then this article is for you and you are on the right page as we are going to make a list of UNIABUJA Catchment Area for admission.
A lot of aspirants have been asking questions to find out the states that are among the University Of Abuja Catchment area for admission into the next session.

What does catchment mean in admission? let’s discuss below;

UNIABUJA Catchment
UNIABUJA
What Is The Meaning Of UNIABUJA Catchment Area?
Catchment areas are those states set out by the Federal Government for Federal Universities, that candidates from that state have more chances of gaining admission into the University which they have been specified to be among the catchment state.

Students from the states specified as Catchment states are considered privileged as they have more chances to be offered admission in that school where they are among the Catchment area.

Now that You know what the catchment area is, what are the catchment area for the University Of Abuja (UNIABUJA)? Keep reading Friend!.

UNIABUJA Catchment Area
The Catchment Area for the University Of Abuja (UNIABUJA) are:

All States of the Federation

Another set of states which also has more chances of gaining admission are called the Educationally less developed states (ELDS).

Let’s assume you know the University Of Abuja Catchment area for admission, let’s now look at the various ELDS state in UNIABUJA.

UNIABUJA ELDS For Admission
The ELDS Area for the University Of Abuja (UNIABUJA) are:

UNIABUJA ELDS

1. Adamawa
2. Bauchi
3. Bayelsa
4. Benue
5. Borno
6. Cross River
7. Ebonyi
8. Gombe
9. Jigawa
10. Kaduna
11. Kano
12. Kebbi
13. Kogi
14. Katsina
15. Kwara
16. Nasarawa
17. Niger
18. Plateau
19. Rivers
20. Sokoto
21. Taraba
22. Yobe
23. Zamfara

It must however be noted that this does not mean the UNIABUJA does not admit students outside the catchment area rather the catchment areas are given special considerations.

JAMB admission is defined in areas of merit, catchment areas, and educationally less developed states (ELDS).

Merit 45%, 35% is for catchment area and 20% to those from educationally less developed states.

The fact is that if a candidate from another state outside the catchment area beats the MERIT cut-off mark of the University of Abuja for the chosen course, he or she will be admitted regardless of the Catchment Policy.

And if you are from any of the catchment States and you failed to meet the catchment cut-off you will not be admitted into the University Of Abuja.

QUICK NOTICE ABOUT POST UTME REGISTRATION

As promised, I’ll be telling you what you have to know about the aftermath of the Post Utme Registration.
Take your time to read this to the end, make sure you share this to anyone you think might be in need of this write up as well.
The registration for university of Abuja Post UTME Screening has ended on the 7th of February, for all those that have registered, I want to wish all that have registered good luck ahead, as far as you’ve done the needful. A quick notice to those that still want to edit or upload one or two documents on the school portal, you can still make all the corrections you want to make, even after the deadline has elapsed, that’s how generous the university of Abuja is.
If you haven’t upload any of your documents, you can still upload it now, and those of you that haven’t upload your O’level results, please do so immediately you have your O’level results ready with you.
Another advice for you; as you are making corrections or new uploads to your registration, it’s highly expected of you to be more cautious as not to do any mistake in it that may impede, hinder, refrain or deprive you of your admission, as far as you don’t have anything to do or correct in your registration, just leave it, don’t bother touching it.

SO, WHAT’S NEXT AFTER THE REGISTRATION…?

The screening result will follow, but it won’t be immediately after this, whenever it’s time, we will surely let you know, just keep following our updates here, and, base on my estimation, the screening result will be out by the end of February or early March and hopefully admission will start reeling out in the month of March as well but it may be during the end of March, so you guys can resume as our new intakes in the month of May, as the new session commences in the first week of May. As soon as things go as planned.

My last advice before concluding my write-up

If you are confused about anything or you want to ask questions, the comments box is always available for you, just construct your sentence well and be considerate with your questions.

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING OF THE POLYTECHNIC, IBADAN.

JULY, 2021.

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the project work, “CONSTRUCTION OF AN AUTOMATIC CHANGE OVER SWITCH” was done by;

OJO EMMANUEL IBUKUNOLUWA 2018232040045
OKE AYOMIDE DAVID 2018232040046
OKUNADE ADEKUNLE 2018232040047
OLADEJO MAYOWA AYOMIDE 2018232040048
ASOGWA CHUKWUEBUKA PETER 2018232040021
Of the department of Electrical Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan.

_____ _____
M. T. FOLAMI DATE
SUPERVISOR

_____ _____
ENGR. M.O. SADIQ DATE
HOD

DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to Almighty God for his loving kindness and fulfillment for his grace over us during the study in The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Also to our beloved parents for their encouragement, understanding, love and support during the course of our study.

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

First we express our heartiest thanks and gratefulness to almighty God for his divine blessing makes us possible to complete this project successfully. We feel grateful to and wish our profound indebtedness to our Supervisor ENGR E. T OPALEYE. The deep knowledge & keen interest of our supervisor has worked as an influencer to carry out project. His endless patience, guidance, continual encouragement, constant and energetic supervision, constructive criticism and valuable advice have made it possible to complete this project. We would like to express our heartiest gratitude to him for motivation and valuable suggestions time to time. I am also thankful to other faculty member and the staff of the Electrical department of our institution. We would like to thank our friends & course-mate, who took part in this project and helped us a lot while completing the circuit design work. Lastly, we express our heartily regards to our parents whose blessings have always been with us.

ABSTRACT

LIST OF FIGURE

LIST OF TABLE

2.1. Categorization of the types of power supplies 14
5.1 Bill of Engineering, Measurement and Evaluation (BEME) 35

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
List of Figure vi
List of table vii
Table of Contents viii

Chapter One
1.0. Introduction 1
1.1. Background of the Project 2
1.2. Statement of the Problem 2
1.3. Aims of the Project 3
1.4. Contribution to Knowledge 3
1.5. Scope of the Project 3
1.6. Methodology 3
1.7. Definition of Term 4
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review 6
2.1. A brief Outline of the Chapter 6
2.2. Historical Background of the Project 6
2.3. Theories and Concept of Research 7
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Research Methodology 16
3.1. A Brief Outline of the Chapter 16
3.2. Research Design 16
3.3. Block by Block Design of a variable 0-30V DC Power Supply 18
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. Principles of operation of the project 25
4.1 Brief introduction of the chapter 25
4.2. Principle of operation 26
4.3. Explanation of various unit 27
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. Construction of the designed project 34
5.1. Brief introduction of the chapter 34
5.2. Choice of materials 34
5.3. Bill of Engineering, Measurement and Estimation (BEME) 35
5.4. Construction of the project 36
5.5. Test(s) results of the test 38
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation 39
6.1. Summary of the project chapter by chapter 39
6.2. Problems encountered 40
6.3. Conclusion 40
6.4. Recommendation 41

REFERENCES 42

CHAPTER ONE

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Power failure or outage in a country, state or city is highly detrimental to development in public and private industries. The insecurity associated with constant or frequent power failure or outage brings about limitation to power consistent investments, thus hampering the development of industries and multinational ventures. Processes like carrying out surgical operations in hospitals, laboratories which require constant power supply for research, money transactions between banks and more require constant use of uninterrupted power. In other to solve this problem, an automatic changeover switch was invented. This research covers the design and construction of a single phase digital automatic power changeover. It has the capacity to automatically switch power from national grid to generator and vice versa, once there is power failure in any of the two power supplies and at the same time has the capacity of shutting down a generator set once the mains grid is been restored.

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
This project is aimed at constructing a changeover switch which switches ON power from Ibadan Electricity Distribution Company (IBEDC) to a generator when power fails and from generator to IBEDC when power comes back and then shut down the generator automatically.
Therefore, objectives of this study are:
To design a device that will change from public power supply to generator when there is power failure or power outage.
To construct a device that will change from generator to public power supply.
To construct a reliable electrical power device which is highly efficient.
To construct automatic changeover switch.
Studying of various component used in circuit.

1.4 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
In every home, office or industries, automatic power changeover plays a vital role, that is, It provides a means of switching from utility AC mains to generator in the case of power failure; This project has been improved on the existing types of electromechanical device that has being in use over the years.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT
This work covers only a one phase automatic changeover which can only be used for providing a means of switching from one phase of AC mains to generator set in the case of failure in public utility.

1.6 METHODOLOGY
To achieve the aim and objectives of this work, the following are the steps involved:
Study of the previous work on the project so as to improve it efficiency.
Draw a block diagram.
Test for continuity of components and devices.
Design and calculation for the changeover was carried out
Studying of various component used in circuit.
Construct a digital changeover circuit.
Finally, the whole device was cased and final test was carried out.

• 1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• RELAY: This is an electromagnetic switch. Switching on/off of relays is based on the flow of current through its coil. Relay is used for switching on/off various high voltage circuits. Changeover switch.
• TRANSFORMER: This a device used for stepping up and down of voltages. Transformer is one of the most important components of the automatic changeover switch. The job of the transformer is to step down 220v to15v as the output of the automatic changeover switch.
• RECTIFIERS: The rectifier circuit consists of a rectifies in series with the AC input to rectifies and the load requiring the DC output i.e. it convert AC to DC.
• DIODE: These are two terminal devices which exhibit low resistance to current flow in one direction and hinder resistance to resistance to current in the other direction. Diode is electronic components.
• CAPACITORS: These are passive components that provide a means of storing electrical energy in form of an electric field.
• REGULATOR: These are device that are used control the rate of current or voltage that from in a process.
• LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED): This is a small semiconductor devices which emit light when small forward current is applied to them.
• RESISTORS: These are defines as devices that alter or resist the flow of current in an electric circuit.
• POWER OUTAGE/ POWER FAILURE: is the loss of the electrical power network supply to an end user.
• AUTOMATIC CHANGEOVER: is device that automatically transfers power from generator supply to PHCN supply when available and stops the generator without human intervention.

CHAPTER TWO

2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT
2.2.1 Uninterrupted Continuous Power Supply
Uninterrupted continuous power supply is essential to the industrial sector, university operations, and residential sector. These standby power supply systems are used to supply power to several types of loads such as:
Essential Loads particularly in industrial processes where they require high restarting times or high shut down times. So the automatic transfer from the main supplies to the standby generator must be available.
Critical Loads such as elevators, or lighting in the buildings where the automatic changeover is very important especially in hospitals, malls, and public places.
Sensitive Loads such as computers, equipment and appliances in hospitals, microprocessor, controlled industrial machines, and the monitoring system where it is costly to shut them down and may be required to use of Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) system until the automatic changeover happens. If a power failure occurs in any hospital or factory, it is essential to switch between the main supplies and the standby generator and make the transition as smooth and safe as possible (Hatem A., 2014).
A changeover system is an active and pivotal system. When there is a main electrical failure, the changeover system would switch to standby alternative power supply (generator), and return back to the main supply when it is restored. Meanwhile an automatic changeover system allows a smooth and automatic transfer of electrical current between multiple sources of power to loads. The automatic changeover system would ensure that all power sources synchronized before connecting the loads with any source to prevent any feedback current from any source to the load when any one of them takes over.
The changeover would sense the interruption if the main supply remains as unavailable the changeover is sensitive to the fluctuations as voltage drops below a particular level within a specified time in the main power supply line. In this case the automatic changeover would switch on the generator and starts feeding the load through a relay that switches the battery voltage to the ignition of the generator. In a few seconds the generator starts producing full power. During this time, the relays would disconnect the load from the other power supplies simultaneously and connect it to the generator. The changeover senses the main power supply continuously. If it is restored, the changeover would return back the connection between the load and the main supply because of its priority. Then, the generator would shut down after a few seconds. The automatic changeover switch that is being designed would be a complete system with various subsystems and components arranged and linked to function primarily as a means of manipulating the supply of electrical power to any desired load (Hatem A., 2014).
The switching that is obtainable from the ordinary changeover system is usually manual, that is, the user would have to move a lever to change from one source to another. This is usually associated with time wasting as well as some health hazards like electric shock. In order to eliminate this human intervention as well as introduce some speed and precision, there is a need for an automatic changeover switch. The switching system selects the available power source without the intervention of the user; hence, ensuring the availability of supply at all times provided that at least one power source is available. The change from one source to another could only be achieved by device or a system that determines when the change should actually take place and which source is to be given preference to supply the load. Preference would be given to the power sources such that only one source supplies the load at a time and when the (first utilities) source fails, the link immediately connects the (second utilities) source to the load.
When the (second utilities) source fails, the link immediately connects the generator to the load. The paper deals with single-phase power source instead of three-phase source. The three-phase was left for future work. Under/over voltage relays with timers to delay the start-up operation until the power supply is stable were used. A delay associated with the automatic changeover system could reach 5Sec. An uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS) could be used to cover this period. The design problem could be subdivided into basically two parts: the power part and the control power. The power part would supply and handle all the power requirements of the automatic changeover switch. The two input power sources would be handled by this subunit as well as the final output to be supplied to the load. It would also provide the necessary control voltage needed by the control section of the unit as a whole. The control part is actually the brain of the automatic changeover switch. It is the part of the unit that would perform the necessary switching based on the prewired configuration of the relaying and triggering system to be developed. This would ensure that only one source actually supplies the load at all times and the required preference for the power sources would be achieved by this subunit.
Fig. 2.1 shows the block diagram of a single phase automatic changeover switch.

Fig. 2.1: The block diagram of the system

2.3 THEORIES AND CONCEPT RELATED TO THE RESEARCH
2.3.1 Review of Existing Work
A research by Atser A. et al., (2014), a “3-Phase Automatic Power Change Over switch” has been designed and implemented using three voltage Comparators (LM741 AH1883), 3-input-AND gate (4073), two BC 108 transistors and 12V, 30mA relay as well as some biasing resistors. The voltage Comparators (LM741 AH1883) were biased to sense the unregulated voltage – one for each of the three phases (Rø, Yø, Bø) and then couple the analogue outputs to the 3-input-AND gate (4073). The AND gate produces an output of “0” (OFF) when all the three phase input voltages are all within the normal (preset) range, else it produces an output of “1” (ON) implying a voltage drop or phase failure in at least one of the compared phases. The output of the gate when coupled to the base of switching transistors (BC 108) determines their states (OFF or ON). Since the transistors are configured in a Darlington pair arrangement, the second is ON only when the first is OFF. This then triggers the public power supply ON due to normal phase voltage. On the contrary, when the first transistor is ON, the 12V battery produces a potential which triggers ON the alternative power source (Generator) via the 12V, 30mA relays hence breaking contact from the public power supply to the Generator side. The switch is tested to have function optimally within ±5% nominal voltage of 220 or 415V supply at the point of changing over to an alternative power source. Hence this device can be of Industrial or domestic use where 3-phase power supply is available with a stand-by power source.
Power supply instability in developing countries creates a need for automation of electrical power generation or alternative sources of power to back up the utility supply. This automation becomes necessary as the rate of power outage becomes predominantly high. Most industries and commercial processes are partly dependent on generators and public power suppOkayly which is epileptic especially in tropical African countries where Nigeria forms a part. Therefore, if the processes of power change-over between these two power-supplying sources are manual, human error during change-over connections may occur; leading to machine damage, electric shock/electrocution as well as increased down time consequently introducing massive losses (Mazur and Rocks, 2001).
To ensure the continuity of power supply, many commercial/industrial facilities depend on both utility service and on-site generation (generator set). And because of the growing complexity of electrical systems it becomes imperative to give attention to power supply reliability and stability. Over the years many approaches have been implored in configuring a changeover system. Some of them are discussed below.

2.3.2 Manual Changeover Switch Box
Manual changeover switch box separates the source between a generator and public supply. Whenever there is power failure, changeover is done manually by human and the same happens when the public power is restored and this is usually accompanied with loud noise and electrical sparks.
2.3.3 Limitations of Manual Changeover Switch Box
Below are some of the limitations of manual changeover switch box.

1. Time wasting whenever there is power failure
2. It is strenuous to operate
3. It is causes device, process or product damage
4. It could cause fire outbreak
5. It makes a lot of noise.
6. Maintenance is more frequent as the changeover action causes wears and tears.

Figure 2.2 is a diagram of manual changeover switch box

Fig.2.2: Manual changeover switch box
2.3.4 Automatic Changeover System with Electromechanical Relays (EMRs)
A relay is an electromagnetic device that is activated by varying its input in order to get a desired output. Recently, electromechanical relays (EMRs) have been used with other component to implement automatic changeover. Such components could be logic gates, transistors, opto-coupler, microcontroller etc. Most of these components make use of 5v since they are Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) based. Such control system must be properly isolated from the relay as shown in figure 2.3 to avoid the flow back of ac signal into the control electronics.

Fig. 2.3: Block diagram of automatic changeover system with electromechanical relay.

Figure 2.4: Diagram of electromechanical relays.
This type of changeover system is better than the manual changeover with switch box because it is automatic and faster, but has its limitations which are listed below:
• Noise associated with switching of relays.
• Wear and tear.
• Arching which could cause fire outbreak.
• High Component count making the system more prone to failures.
2.3.5 Changeover with Automatic Transfer Switch
This type of changeover system has an automatic transfer switch which monitors the alternating current (AC) voltage coming from the utility company line for power failure conditions. Upon detection of power failure for predetermined period of time, the standby generator is activated (started), after which the load is transferred from utility to the standby generator. Then, on return of the utility feed, the load is switched back after some time and the generator is stopped. The limitations of this approach are more or less the same thing with automatic changeover system with electromechanical relays.

2.3.6 Description of the New System
In view of the limitations of the above previous works, this paper proposes and implements a changeover system that drastically reduced the shortcomings. The noise, arching, wear and tear associated with EMRs are eliminated totally by the introduction of solid state relay. Digital components were also used to make the work more reliable unlike the previously existing ones that make use of circuit breakers. Also an AT89C52 microcontroller was also incorporated to help improve the speed of automation. The system is controlled by a software program embedded in the microcontroller. This work is handy and portable compared to the bulky works done previously. It also have some important features like liquid crystal
display (LCD) which makes the system user friendly, an alarm system for indicating generator failure, automatic phase selector for selecting most appropriate phase, over-voltage and under-voltage level monitoring. Economically, this project is of low cost due to the use of ICs in place of discrete components.
2.3.7 Description of Solid State Relays
With emergence of semiconductor technology the production of solid state relays were made possible which in many applications out perform their predecessors. A typical solid state relay consists of a light emitting diode (LED) optically coupled to a photovoltaic device such as a Field Effect Transistor (FET). Light from the LED creates a voltage across the photovoltaic array and activates the output FET. FET is the preferred switching element in a solid state relay because it presents comparatively less electric resistant when it is in a conductive state than a triac in the same state and therefore generates less heat. As a result of this, FET requires smaller heat dissipating fins and could reduce the overall size of the solid state relay. The internal circuitry of a typical solid state relay is shown figure 2.5 while figure 2.6 is a solid state relay from FOTEK:

Fig. 2.5: The internal circuitry of a typical solid state relay

Fig. 2.6: Solid state relay from FOTEK

2.3.8 Advantages of solid state relay over electromechanical relay
Solid state relay has the following properties which gave it an edge over the EMR:
It has no moving coil part.
It has long operating life.
Bounce-free operation.
It has immunity to electromagnetic interference.
It has high switching speed
It could be controlled by a low signal (3v).
Multi function integration
No arching or sparking.
No acoustical noise.
High reliability.
Resistance to shock and vibration.
Wide input voltage range.
High input-output isolation.
Because of the low signal control feature, solid state relays could be driven directly by the microcontroller the use of interface drivers. This could save space, time and money, reduce component count as well as improve product life, performance and reliability.

2.4 THE STAND-BY POWER UNIT (GENERATOR)
The stand-by generator set is commonly used to supply emergency power to most of the power consumers where the mains supply is unstable. For best performance of the system, we must put into consideration the type of generator, engine type, its cooling system and fuel, the load capacity and the operating environment. Whatever cooling system is used to cool the generator, it is recommended that the heated air be channeled outside through an exhaust pipe while provision should be made to bring in fresh air so that the generating room, where the generator is installed, can be kept from becoming excessively hot, as this might cause damage to the engine of the generating set (Ezema, et al., 2012).
Furthermore, the lubrication of the set is much important; the recommended lubricant should be used in order to maintain smooth and prolonged life span of the set by reducing wear and tear of the engine and other parts due to friction (Ezema, et al., 2012). Finally, it is important to determine the correct rating of the mechanical engine to drive a given generator so that it has the minimum capacity necessary to supply the selected load.

2.5 FEATURES OF GENERATOR TO BE USED ON AUTOMATIC CHANGE OVER SWITCH
The automatic change-over switch can be used in any place where alternative power is needed to complement the main power supply. In this project, a generating set is used as an alternative power supply. Thus, it is very important to note the necessary peripherals to be used with the automatic change-over switch.
(a) The generator must have electrical ‘start and stop’ facility.
(b) The generator’s battery has to be in good condition always.
(c) The inter-connecting cables must be in good order (Ezema, et al., 2012).

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER
The methodology of this research involves construction of an Automatic Changeover Switch. The incorporation of the Automatic Changeover Switch involves the use of automatic switching between the phases of the mains supply and automatic switching between the generator/backup power supply. The main objective of this research is to compare the stress levels experienced during automatic switching with the aid of the Automatic Changeover Switch and the stress levels experienced when the switching is done manually, analyzing the relationship between them and drawing conclusions based on the analysis. Also the time delay during switching with the use of the Automatic Changeover Switch and with the switching done manually are also compared and analyzed and conclusions are drawn from the analysis.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
3.2.1 Design Consideration of a Change-over Switch
In designing and construction of this change-over switch, a generator with the capacity of 12KVA was used and its rating determines the ratings of the components and circuit elements to be used. It does not function with a faulty generating set and the generator must have a manual starter and engine stopper which is a sine quo non to the function of the automatic change-over. This automatic change-over switch is designed and constructed with the aim of achieving the following automatic actions.
To automatically switch on the generator and switch over the load to the generator whenever there is mains power failure.
To automatically switch over to mains supply once restored and simultaneously switch off the generator.
However, a good switch should be the one whose contact is made in such away as to limit the arc formation by having no contact-bounce and by having contacts made of good conductive, corrosion resistance and wears resistance materials. Change-over switch must have adequate insulation and must be so contracted and located as not to constitute a potential hazard. A good change-over switch should also have tight contact points so as to limit or eliminate the possibility of partial contact at the contact point. The partial contact may lead to fire outbreak or possible damage to the contactor itself.
The following are the advantages that are associated to the change-over switch.

• It minimizes damages to lives and equipment since it has its own monitoring system and its switching requires no human contact with the switch, thus eliminating human error.
• It reduces change- over time to a minimum, due to its fast response to power restoration.
• It maintains high quality of service through its fast and prompt response.
• Moreover, the unit is portable, easy, convenient and safe to install.

Fig. 3.1: Phase Automatic Change Over with Generator Control

3.3 MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS
3.3.1 Materials
Three voltage Comparators (LM741 AH1883), 3-input-AND gate (4073), two BC 108 transistors, two 12V; 30mA relays, biasing resistors, 240/12V; 500mA transformer, bridge rectifier (1N4002), two voltage regulators (LM7812 and LM7805), variac, Multimeter plus some other components.
3.3.2 Components
The components involved in the construction of the ATS are made up mainly of contactors and relays. This is so because they are very effective when used for electrical controls. They operate on the principle of electromagnetism and can carry out automatic switching very effectively. They are very rugged and durable and their operation is similar but the difference between them is that contactors can switch higher currents. Other components include miniature circuit breakers and indicator lights. On table 3.1 is a list of components to be used and their ratings.
Table 3.1 List of components and rating
Quantity
Component
Rating

2
Magnetic contactor
220/240, 20A

1
Solid state relay
12V

1
Relay (ac)
220/240V

2
Miniature circuit breaker
220/240V, 20A

3
Indicator light
220/240V

2
Digital voltmeter
220V

1
Emergency switch
NC/NO contact

3.4 DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS
3.4.1 Relay
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays are like remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their relative simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. Relays are used in a wide variety of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, automatic changeover switch, digital computers and automation systems. Highly sophisticated relays are utilized to protect electric power systems against trouble and power blackouts as well as to regulate and control the generation and distribution of power. In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls. Although relays are generally associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types, such as pneumatic and hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or vice versa.
3.4.2 Basic Operation of Relay
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another. The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit.
There are three basic functions of a relay:
On/Off Control,
Limit Control and
Logic Operation.
On/Off Control: Example: Air conditioning control, used to limit and control a “high power”
load, such as a compressor
Limit Control: Example: Motor Speed Control, used to disconnect a motor if it runs slower or faster than the desired speed
Logic Operation: Example: Test Equipment, used to connect the instrument to a number of testing points on the device under test.

3.4.3 Types of Relays
There are two basic classifications of relays: Electromechanical and Solid State. Electromechanical relays have moving parts, whereas solid state relays have no moving parts. Advantages of Electromechanical relays include lower cost, no heat sink is required, multiple poles are available, and they could switch AC or DC with equal ease.
i. Electromechanical Relays
General Purpose Relay: The general-purpose relay is rated by the amount of current its switch contacts could handle. Most versions of the general-purpose relay have one to eight poles and could be single or double throw. These are found in computers, copy machines, and other consumer electronic equipment and appliances.
Power Relay: The power relay is capable of handling larger power loads – 10-50 amperes or more. They are usually single-pole or double-pole units.
ii. Solid State Relays
These active semiconductor devices use light instead of magnetism to actuate a switch. The light comes from an LED, or light emitting diode. When control power is applied to the device’s output, the light General Purpose Relay is turned on and shines across an open space. On the load side of this space, a part of the device senses the presence of the light, and triggers a solid state switch that either opens or closes the circuit under control. Often, solid state relays are used where the circuit under control must be protected from the introduction of electrical noises. Advantages of Solid State Relays include low EMI/RFI, long life, no moving parts, no contact bounce, and fast response. The drawback to using a solid state relay is that it could only accomplish single pole switching (Hatem 2014). Figure 3.2 is a relay switch at rest and when is energize.

Fig. 3.2: Diagram of a Relay switch

3.3.5 Operating Principle of Contactors
Unlike general-purpose relays, contactors are designed to be directly connected to high-current load devices. Relays tend to be of lower capacity and are usually designed for both normally closed and normally open applications. Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits rated more than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Apart from optional auxiliary low current contacts, contactors are almost exclusively fitted with normally open (“form A”) contacts. Unlike relays, contactors are designed with features to control and suppress the arc produced when interrupting heavy motor currents. When current passes through the electromagnet, a magnetic field is produced, which attracts the moving core of the contactor. The electromagnet coil draws more current initially, until its inductance increases when the metal core enters the coil. The moving contact is propelled by the moving core; the force developed by the electromagnet holds the moving and fixed contacts together. When the contactor coil is de-energized, gravity or a spring returns the electromagnet core to its initial position and opens the contacts.
For contactors energized with alternating current, a small part of the core is surrounded with a shading coil, which slightly delays the magnetic flux in the core. The effect is to average out the alternating pull of the magnetic field and so prevent the core from buzzing at twice line frequency. Because arcing and consequent damage occurs just as the contacts are opening or closing, contactors are designed to open and close very rapidly; there is often an internal tipping point mechanism to ensure rapid action. Rapid closing could, however, lead to increase contact bounce which causes additional unwanted open-close cycles. One solution is to have bifurcated contacts to minimize contact bounce; two contacts designed to close simultaneously, but bounce at different times so the circuit would not be briefly disconnected and cause an arc.
A slight variant has multiple contacts designed to engage in rapid succession. The first to make contact and last to break would experience the greatest contact wear and would form a high-resistance connection that would cause excessive heating inside the contactor. However, in doing so, it would protect the primary contact from arcing, so a low contact resistance would be established a millisecond later. Another technique for improving the life of contactors is contact wipe; the contacts move past each other after initial contact on order to wipe off any contamination. (Lanre O.R. 2014). Figure 3.3 is a diagram of contactor switch

Fig. 3.3: Diagram of a Contactor switch

3.4 DIGITAL MULTIMETER
The digital multimeter, DMM, is one of the most common items of test equipment used in the electronics industry today. While there are many other items of test equipment that are available, the multimeter is able to provide excellent readings of the basic measurements of amps, volts and ohms. In addition to this the fact that these digital multimeters use digital and logic technology, means that the use of integrated circuits rather than analogue techniques, enables many new test features to be embedded in the design. As a result, most of today’s digital multimeters incorporate many additional measurements that could be made.

3.5 DMM FACILITIES
While the facilities that a digital multimeter could offer are much greater than their analogue predecessors, the cost of DMMs is relatively low. DMMs are able to offer as standard the basic measurements that would typically include:
Current (DC)
Current (AC)
Voltage (DC)
Voltage (AC)
Resistance
However, using integrated circuit technology, most DMMs are able to offer additional test capabilities. These may include some of the following:
Capacitance
Temperature
Frequency
Transistor test – hfe, etc
Continuity (buzzer)
While some of these additional test features may not be as accurate as those supplied by dedicated test instruments, they are nevertheless very useful, especially where approximate readings only are needed.
In addition to an increase in the number of basic measurements that could be made, refinements of some of the basic measurements are also available on some models. True RMS multimeters are available. In many instances, AC waveforms use forms of average measurements that are then converted to RMS measurements using a form factor. This method of measurement is very dependent upon the shape of the waveform and as a result a true RMS digital multimeter may be required. In addition to the availability of a true RMS meters, similar refinements of the other basic measurements are also available in some instances.
In addition to the additional measurement capabilities, DMMs also offer flexibility in the way measurements are made. Again this is achieved because of the additional capabilities provided by the digital electronics circuitry contained within the digital multimeter. Many instruments would offer two additional capabilities:
Auto-range:   This facility enables the correct range of the digital multimeter to be selected so that the most significant digits are shown, i.e. a four-digit DMM would automatically select an appropriate range to display 1.234 mV instead of 0.012 V. Additionally it also prevent overloading, by ensuring that a volts range is selected instead of a millivolts range. Digital multimeters that incorporate an auto-range facility usually include a facility to ‘freeze’ the meter to a particular range. This prevents a measurement that might be on the border between two ranges causing the meter to frequently change its range which could be very distracting.
Auto-polarity:   This is a very convenient facility that comes into action for direct current and voltage readings. It shows if the voltage of current being measured is positive (i.e. it is in the same sense as the meter connections) or negative (i.e. opposite polarity to meter connections). Analogue meters did not have this facility and the meter would deflect backwards and the meter leads would have to be reversed to correctly take the reading. Figure 3.3 is a diagram of digital multimeter and table 3.2 is the rough estimate of cost implication of the project.

Fig. 3.4: Diagram of Digital multimeter

Table 3.2: Rough Estimate of the Cost Implication of the Project
Quantity
Component/Materials
Unit
Total Cost(N)

2
Magnetic Contactor, 220/240V, 20A
2,500
5,000

2
Relay, 220/240V
1,500
3,000

2
Digital voltmeter,220/240
1,200
1,200

2
Miniature circuit breaker, 220/240V, 16A
1,500
1,500

2
Indicator Light, 220/240V
300
600

1
Package box
2,500
2,500

2m
Mounting rail
300
600

15m
Single core cable, 2.5mm2 (red)
50
750

15m
Single core cable, 2.5mm2 (black
50
750

15m
Single core flexible cable, 0.75mm2
30
450

1
Packet screw
300
300

1
Packet Nylon cable ties
300
300

OVERALL TOTAL……………………………………….. N16,950

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF THE PROJECT
4.1 Brief Introduction of the Chapter
This chapter reveals the research design, and the different stages of the project, the concept as well as the techniques adopted in the project and the working principle of the project.

4.2 Principle of Operation
4.2.1 Working Operation of A 10 KVA Change Over Switch
The project is designed such that everything takes place automatically and the appliances are never switched OFF, just reverted from inverter AC to Mains AC and vice versa during mains power failures and restorations.
A scenario in which the change over switches from a generator source to AC mains whenever is available, but not design to put on the generator when there is AC mains power out. All these are done automatically.

Fig. 4.1: Circuit diagram of construction of Automatic Changeover Switch
The entire unit requires three relays; the relays are serving as switches, the first relay is used to switch between the outputs of both the main and generator, that is, LIVE and neutral from their respective direct connections before entering the house.
The second relay is used such that when there is the relay NORMALLY CLOSED (NC) remains closed and the house is supplied with the available voltage source.
When the generator is ON as a result of outage, the NORMALLY OPEN (NO) overrides on the NC of the initial condition, while the NC remains closed, the house is supplied with the generator voltage.
The third relay is a small 12V relay that is used to permanently put off the generator when there is power supply. The relay works by first an LED which comes on to show that there is power supply available and shut down the generator.
The microcontroller used for this project is ATMEGA 8 forms the heart and central controlling unit for the project as it controls the three relays used for the switching of the whole processes. From the control of the first relay to the last relay, it is being governed by microcontroller. The entire unit is microcontroller based, the microcontroller through the communication received from the first relay which serves as a monitoring and switching device, the first relay monitor either the IBEDC or generator’s voltage to know which to switch to by comparing the voltages which is displayed on the LED ( Light emitting diode ) display. If the voltage compared is IBEDC it relates this to the microcontroller which triggers the second relay to put off the existing source, that is, generator, and switch the supply back to IBEDC and the microcontroller triggers the third relay which put ON an LED to show power supply availability and to put off the generator
When there is power outage, which the microcontroller senses through the second relay by the compared voltages value, the microcontroller triggers this relay to switch to existing generator. The rating of the first relay is a 12V 80A, the second relay is 12V 30A while the third relay is 12V 25A. Other components used are sub-circuit needed for the working of the major components explained above.
A sub-circuit called reset circuit is connected to the microcontroller to enable its operation, the heart of the project is the control unit which uses an ATMEGA8 microcontroller, this microcontroller controls the activities of all major components connected to it.

Fig. 4.2: Circuit Diagram Showing the Microcontroller Section Connection to the Reset
This section gives instruction to the all the sub-circuits connected to it while all the sensors monitoring the environmental parameters report to the microcontroller via a written set of programming codes written in ASSEMBLY language to activate it sensing operation, measure and give the value in analogue data to the microcontroller which converts it to digital signal, a format recognized by the ATMEGA Circuit. It constantly monitors the signal from the relays before it takes action. It checks if any corrective action is to be taken for the condition at that instant of time. In case such a situation arises, it activates the actuators to perform a controlled operation.
A programmer is used to program these instructions into the microcontroller chip. The assembler software; MPASM converts text to machine code. Inside the microcontroller, the program is stored in the EPROM (Electrical Programmable Read Only Memory). The instructions programmed into the microcontroller work by moving and manipulating data in memory locations as user files and registers call RAM (Random Access Memory).
Master clear reset circuit
From the diagram shown in the above figure, Pin 1 is the reset pin. The reset logic is used to place the device into a known state. The source of the reset can be determined by using the device status bits. The reset logic is designed with features that reduce system cost and increase system reliability. While MCLR voltage is less than +4V, the microcontroller is held at reset point, when the voltage rises beyond +4V, program begins. Diode IN4148 D4 helps discharge the capacitor quickly when power is down; Resistor R33 is chosen as 10KΩ to limits the current flowing into MCLR from capacitor C3 in the event of MCLR pin breakdown.
It should be noted that most of the microcontroller pins are input pins by default apart from some designated pins like RESET, OSILLATORS, +VE and –VE pins, therefore to set some pins to output pins in order for signals to be generated from them, the following commands/ instruction were initiated at the start of the codes writing before proceeding to others set of instructions. We can configure the ports as output; this is done through program codes written thus;
BCF STATUS, PC0: PC5; (BIT CLEAR PORT C);
To set as output Clear PORTC
In the above piece of codes, the first line selects the bank where the register PORTC is found, that is Bank0. Clearing the port, done with line two, initializes the port. The third line is responsible for moving to Bank1 where the TRIS register is found, clearing TRIS means all the pins of port are outputs (the direction of data is to the LCD), and finally the last line moves back to the default Bank0. Bits 5 and 6 of the status register are responsible for the bank selection.
Another sub-circuit know as relay driver From the above circuit, each relay section was used to switch the Feeder ON and OFF, with the target condition in mind, the generate +12V supply from the power supply section which is applied to the coils of the each relay, capacitor 470uF was connected to prevent spikes by eliminating over and false clicking of the relay; diode IN4007 connected together with relay and connected in a reversed direction to function as a protection diode, transistor TIP 41 was used to amplify the voltage to the microcontroller and the resistors 200 and 10K resistors are protecting the microcontroller pin against over voltage.
4.3 EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS UNITS
i. RELAY: This is an electromagnetic switch. Switching on/off of relays is based on the flow of current through its coil. Relay is used for switching on/off various high voltage circuits changeover switch.
ii. TRANSFORMER: This a device used for stepping up and down of voltages. Transformer is one of the most important components of the automatic changeover switch. The job of the transformer is to step down 220v to15v as the output of the automatic changeover switch.
iii. RECTIFIERS: The rectifier circuit consists of a rectifies in series with the AC input to rectifies and the load requiring the DC output i.e. it convert AC to DC.
iv. DIODE: These are two terminal devices which exhibit low resistance to current flow in one direction and hinder resistance to resistance to current in the other direction. Diode is electronic components.
v. CAPACITORS: These are passive components that provide a means of storing electrical energy in form of an electric field.
vi. REGULATOR: These are device that are used control the rate of current or voltage that from in a process.
vii. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED): This is a small semiconductor devices which emit light when small forward current is applied to them.
RESISTORS: These are defines as devices that alter or resist the flow of current in an electric circuit.
TRANSISTORS: These are three terminal devices which is used in automatic changeover switch circuit to generate oscillation signal, amplification of signal and switch on/off various circuit.
CONTACTOR: This is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power circuit, similar to a relay except with higher current ratings. A contactors controlled by a circuit which has a much lower power level than the switched circuit.
CONNECTOR: This is an electrical device that is used for joining circuit together.
FUSE AND FUSE HOLDER: This is a very important component in an automatic changeover switch. Fuses are used to self-destruct and protect the circuit from flow of heavy voltage.
CUT OUT FUSE: This is a combination of a fuse and switch, used in primary- overhead feeder lines and taps to protect.
VERO BOARD: This is a brand of strip board, a pre-formed circuit board material of copper strips on an insulating board.
SOLDER: This is a fusible metal alloy used to join together metal work pieces and having a melting point below that of the work piece.
JUMPER: This a short length of conductor used to close a break in or by pass of an electrical circuit.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONSTRUCTION OF THE DESIGNED PROJECT
5.1 Brief Introduction of the Chapter
This chapter reviews the materials used in the construction of project. It contains the choice of materials used; the Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME), construction of the project and the test result.

5.2 Choice of Materials
The following factors are considered for choosing the materials:
Magnetic Contactor, 220/240V, 20A
Relay, 220/240V
Digital voltmeter, 220/240
Miniature circuit breaker, 220/240V, 16A
Indicator Light, 220/240V
Package box
Mounting rail
Single core cable, 2.5mm2 (red)
Single core cable, 2.5mm2 (black)
Single core flexible cable, 0.75mm2
Packet screw
Packet Nylon cable ties

5.2.1 Materials used
Magnetic Contactor
Relay
Digital voltmeter
Miniature circuit breaker
Indicator Light
Package box
Mounting rail
Single core cable
Single core flexible cable
Packet screw
Packet Nylon cable ties

5.3 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION (BEME) TABLE
5.3.1 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME) for a 10KVA Automatic Change Over Project
S/N
Components
Units
Qty
Total (N)

1
CAPACITORS: 10µF, 1000µF, 47 µF
FARADS
3
700

2
DIODES: IN4007, IN4148

22
900

3
RESISTORS:47(, 330 (, IK(, 10K(, 220(, 10(, 22K(, 100(, 150K(
OHMS
(()
1
1500

4

LED DISPLAY

2
800

5
ATMEGA 8

3500

6
12V 30A, 12V 80A AND 12V 25A RELAYS

6500

7
TRANSISTOR BC548

6
850

8
TRANSISTOR BC557

4
680

9
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD PCB PANEL

3700

10
ETCHING CHEMICAL

1500

11
1mm DRILL BIT

1DOZEN
1200

12
PLASTIC CASING (ACCOBOARD)

1X2
4500

13
IC SOCKETS 4 X4

2
600

14
IC SOCKETS 8X8

1
840

15
IC SOCKETS 14X14

960

16
CABLES

2000

17
SOLDERING LEAD

1
6500

18
BOLTS AND NUTS, BLACK SCREWS

5DOZENS

19
CONNECTORS

3000

TOTAL

N39,740

5.4 Construction of the Project
5.4.1 Design
As stated earlier in previous sections, this ATS design is for single phase supply. The circuit can be divided into two major parts namely
The Power circuit
The Control circuit
Though these two circuits work hand in hand, the control circuit is the brain box of the device that ‘gives the orders’. The design is an adaptation from some already existing designs but some modifications have been carried out on it to ensure that it takes care of some issues not considered in previous designs. The circuit for this project work is therefore designed to perform the following functions.
Ensure that both sources of power do not supply at the same time and this is ensured through its electrical interlocks.
It ensures that when primary supply is restored, it is monitored and confirmed that it is not just momentary or a surge before it stops the generator and connects it to load.
Ensures that the whole installation i.e. the device and the load is well protected with the use of miniature circuit breakers
5.4.2 Construction

• The Power section: The power section of the ATS is responsible for the switching between generator and primary source of supply. The circuit diagram for this is shown in figure 5.1

Fig. 5.1: Power Circuit
The miniature circuit breakers, B2, and B3 are meant for isolation and protection of various parts of the circuit. The contactors C1 and C2 are the generator and primary source contactors respectively. The control circuit send signals to this circuit on when to switch and to which supply to switch.

• The Control section: This is the brain box of the device. It controls everything that goes on in the entire ATS and ensures that the circuit works exactly the way it is configured. This section can be divided into two parts which are the auto – start section and the auto – transfer section. The auto – transfer section can be further divided into two circuits namely the generator auto – transfer circuit and the primary source auto – transfer circuit.

5.4.2 Various Tools & Equipment Needed For Fabrication

Fig. 5.1: Soldering wire Fig. 5.2: Flux

Fig. 5.3: Wire cutter Fig. 5.4: Multimeter

5.4.3 Soldering
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relative low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 40000C (7520F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength.
Soldiering is something that needs to be practiced. These tips should help you began successful so you can stop practicing and get down to some serious building.
Keep the iron tip clean. A clean iron tip means better heat conduction and a better joint. Use a wet sponge to clean the tip between joints.
Double check points. It is good idea to check all the solders joints with an Ohm meter after they are cooled. If the joint measures any more than a few tenths of an ohm, then it may be a good idea to resolder it.
Use the proper iron. Remember that bigger joints will take longer to heat up with an 30W iron than with a 150w Iron.
Solder small parts first. Solder resistors, jumper leads, diodes and any other small parts before you solder larger parts like capacitors and transistors. This makes assembly much easier.

5.5 Test(s) Results of Test
The importance of testing in the field of Electronic and Electrical Engineering before, during and after the implementation of a design cannot be overemphasized. This is of great importance because there is need to analyze the functions and working conditions of components before using them in a circuit. Various tools and equipment are available for carrying out these tests depending on the kind of test. Circuits could also be simulated using different software packages in order to observe how they work and make necessary corrections and adjustments before implementation on hardware.
In the course of implementing these circuits, the test instruments used were the multimeter, variable and fixed dc supply, variable and fixed ac supply. The 230Vac relays were tested to ascertain their working condition; each of them was tested separately. The relay was plugged to the base and a fixed 230V a.c source was used in energizing it through pins A1 and A2 (the coil) and it was confirmed working. The contacts Normally Open (N.O) and Normally Close (N.C) were also tested using a multimeter in the continuity range. The N.C contacts were short circuited when the relay was not connected to supply (i.e. when the relay was not energized) and open circuited when the relay was energized. Reverse was however the case for the N.O contacts as they were open circuited when the relay was de-energized and short circuited when it was energized.
5.5.1 Circuit Testing and Results
The test on the contactor was carried out using the supply from the generator and a 60W bulb which served as the load. The supply was connected to the contactor via the terminals A1 and A2 (coil), a neutral and live supply to three of its incomer terminals as the contactor is four pole and the 60W bulb connected to the three corresponding outgoing terminals. The voltage was varied from 0V and the contactor did not respond until 110V. At 110V, the contactor responded by energizing and the bulb came on but the intensity was low. As the voltage was increased, the intensity of the lamp also increased. This implies that the contactor will be suitable for proper operation between 110- 230Vac supply. Likewise the voltmeter was tested by connecting three-single phase supply to its pins. The circuit breakers and indicator lamps were also tested and confirmed working.
The finished work was tested with a 2.0kVA Generator with a rated capacity of 8.33A as the secondary source and a mini residential apartment with a connected load of about 14A supplied from the primary source. For the generator to work perfectly with the circuit for automatic starting and transfer, the key must be at the “ON” position. The terminal of the kick starter has six wires connected to it, two of which are for switching off the generator, two for putting it ON and the other two for starting it. In connecting the automatic power transfer switch to the generator, only four of the wires which are used for starting and switching off the generator are needed.
In order to detect the function of each wire, a short test was conducted. A short piece of wire peeled on both ends was taken to be the bridging plug. To find out the wires meant for starting the generator, the key was turned to the ON position and two of the six wires were picked simultaneously at random and bridged with the short piece of wire. When a particular two were bridged, the generator cranked and was about to start indicating the starting wires of the gen. It should be noted however that the generator can either be started by pulling it or with the key. It can only be started with the key or work with the project if the battery is fully charged and in proper working condition. If the battery is bad, the generator will not work with the ATS and cannot also be started with the key. The user will have to result to pulling it to start. To detect the wires meant for switching off the generator, the generator was started. While it was working, two of the four wires were picked at random and bridged at the terminals. On bridging a particular two, the gen shutdown and the wires were also marked.
The mains supply to the building was connected to the incomer terminals of the circuit breakers B1 – B3 while the supply from the generator was connected to the incomer terminal of the circuit breaker B4. The load was connected to the outgoing terminal of the circuit breaker B.

Fig. 5.5: Construction of Automatic Changeover Switch

CHAPTER SIX

6.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Summary of the Project Chapter by Chapter
Chapter one introduces the automatic change over switch as the zeal for change over on public power supply and stand-by generator increases, Engineers have researched deep into the different ways and methods of achieving power change-over both manual and automatic types
Chapter Two discusses the literature review of the inverter which explains the historical background of the device, and the theories and concepts relevant to the research of the project.
Chapter Three is on research methodology and design of the project.
Chapter Four explains the Principle of Operation, Working Operation of A 10 KVA Change Over Switch, Digital multimeter, DMM facilities using integrated circuit technology, most DMMs are able to offer additional test capabilities including; Capacitance, Temperature, Frequency , Transistor, Continuity etc.
Chapter Five discusses the construction of Automatic Changeover Switch, Choice of Materials, Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME) for a 10KVA Automatic Change Over, Materials used Various Tools & Equipment Needed for Fabrication and Soldering, Test(s) Results of Test. It is imbedded in each chapter relevant figures as need arises.

6.2 Problems Encountered
Power supply instability in developing countries creates a need for automation of electrical power generation or alternative sources of power to back up the utility supply. This automation becomes necessary as the rate of power outage becomes predominantly high. Most industries and commercial processes are partly dependent on generators and public power supply which is epileptic especially in tropical Africa countries where Nigeria forms a part. However, if the starting of the generator is automatically done by a relay which switches the battery voltage to ignition coil of the generator while the main power relay switches the load to either public supply or generator, the down time would greatly be reduce thereby maintaining the tempo of production in such industries. The approach used in this work is the modular approach where the overall design is first broken into functional blocks. Each of these blocks carries out a specific function in the entire system by the interconnections between the block.
In any technical work carried out, there are bounds to be problems either on the board or the component been used. Some faults on the board while soldering which lead to the damage of some component that will be used was encountered. Then will trace it out the fault and rectify the problem. In the course of this project work, there is always power failure at most times which slow down the rate of construction of the automatic changeover switch control circuit because power supply is needed for soldering of components. Also some of the components were not readily available, and those that were available were bought and kept in good condition, while other components were easy to get at electronics stores along Ogunpa, Ibadan, Oyo State.

6.3 Conclusion
An automatic power changeover switch has been designed and constructed. The prototype of the automatic power changeover switch worked according to the specification and quite satisfactorily. The device is quite cheap, reliable and easy to operate. Whenever there is power outage, it reduces stress for manpower changeover. The automatic changeover system has immense advantage in every area where uninterrupted power is required. Whenever the reliability of electrical supply from the utilities is low and wherever continuity of supply is necessary, the automatic changeover system switches to an alternative source from main supply and vice versa. Hence this device can be of Industrial or domestic use where power supply is available with a stand-by power source.

6.4 Recommendations
Considering the problem encountered, the knowledge and the training acquired during the course of this project, the recommendation can be made. This automatic changeover switch is reliable and easy to understand it operation. This system can be used for automatic changeover of power supply and auxiliary supply. This automatics changeover switch can be used in our home and offices. It can be used for effective switching of electricity supply.
It is further recommended from the experience acquired during the course of this project that:
The practical session carried out during the course of study should be review to meet up with the current trends of study in order advanced part of the world.
The choice of project topic should base on student’ specialization to enhance the interest and effectiveness in completion of the project work.
Further work may be carried out on this project in order to improve its function.

REFERENCES
Ahmed, M.S, A.S. Mohammed (2006). “Development of a single phase Automatic Changeover Switch”, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria.
Atser A. Roy, Gesa, F. Newton & Aondoakaa, I. Solomon (2014). “Design and Implementation of a 3-Phase Automatic Power Change-over Switch”. American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER). e-ISSN : 2320-0847 p-ISSN : 2320-0936 Volume-3, Issue-9, pp-07-14
Brown, P. E, J. Guditis, “Critical Power System Functional Block diagram”. Critical Power Automation Transfer Systems-Design and Application, pp18-19.
Hatem A. (2014). “Automatic changeover switch for power source” Department of Electrical Engineering, Islamic University of Gaza , Gaza, Palestine.
http://www.articlesbase.com/tool_and_equipments. November, 2009.
Kolo, J.G. (2007). “Design and Construction of a Single Phase Automatic Change-Over Switch”, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria.
L.S. Ezema, B.U. Peter and O.O. Harris (2012), “Design of Automatic Change-Over Switch with Generator Control Mechanism”, Electrical Power and Electronic Development Department Projects Development Institute, 3(3):127-129. Available: www.journals.savap.org.pk
Oladokun A.S. (2013), “Design and Construction of an Automatic Mains and Phase Changer”. Paper on “Automatic transfer switch (ATS) based on a programmable logic controller (PLC)”, Mechatronics, 2004, ICM ’04. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference, Issue: 3 -5
Robert D. O. (2010), “Design and Construction of Three Phase Automatic Transfer Switch”. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Informatics and Engineering, Regent University College of Science and Technology,01 – 06.
Saiful A.A. (2008), “Automatic Mains Failure (AMF) System”. A Thesis submitted to The Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering University, Malaysia Pahang. 01pp.
Silva, R. “How automatic transfer switches work”, retrieved online from

Magnetic flux is the surface integral of the normal components of the magnetic field B over that surface. It is usually denoted as ∅. The SI unit of magnetic flux is Weber
∅ = BAcosø
∅ = Magnetic flux
B = Magnetic field
A = area
ø = Angle between a perpendicular vector to the magnetic field and magnetic flux
Magnetic flux density, B is the measure of the magnetic flux passing through a unit area in a plane at right angle to the flux. The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Weber per meter square (wb/m²), B = ∅/A
Magnemotive force (M.M.F) This is the flux which drives magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit (i.e the route or path which is followed by magnetic flux) and correspond to electromotive force (e.m.f) in an electric circuit. It’s usually measured in Ampere turns
F = IN, where F = Magnemotive force, I = current, N = number of turns

state three factors in which the force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field depends

Demonstrate the law of magnetic force of attraction and opposition with the aid of a diagram using a two bar magnets

1. A conductor of active length 0.3m moves in a magnetic field at a linear velocity of 500m/s. If the magnetic flux density is 0.05T, calculate the average value of the induced e.m.f, if the direction of movement of the conductor is perpendicular to the field.
   The average value of the induced e.m.f = magnetic flux density × length × velocity
   Therefore e.m.f, E = BLV
   B = 0.05T, L = 0.3m, velocity= 500m/s
   0.3×0.05×500 = 7.5volts
2. A coil of 1000 turns and length 0.2m carries a current of 5A. If the cross sectional area of the magnetic circuit is proportional to the flux 1.0cm² and the flux produced by the coil is 0.15mWb. Calculate the permeability of the magnetic material.
   L = 0.2m, N = 1000 turns, I = 5A, A = 1.0cm² = 0.01m², ∅ = 0.15mWb
   Length= L, number of turns= N, current= I, area = A, flux = 0.15×10–³Wb
   ∅ = BA; B = ∅/A; B = 0.00015/0.01
   Flux density, B = 0.015wb/m²
   Magnetic field=H
   H = IN/L
   (5 × 1000) ÷ 0.2 = 25,000A/m
   Calculate the permeability of the magnetic material
   Permeability of the magnetic material = flux density/ magnetic field
   B/H = 0.015/25000
   6 × 10–⁷ Tesla/Ampere meter

TECHNICAL REPORT

ON

STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

AT

TRANSMISSION COMPANY OF NIGERIA (TCN) PAPALANTO SUB REGION, OLORUNSOGO, OTTA, OGUN STATE

BETWEEN 2nd DECEMBER, 2019 TO 28th MARCH, 2020

BY

OJO EMMANUEL IBUKUNOLUWA 2018232040045

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMAT IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING OF THE POLYTECHNIC, IBADAN.

ABSTRACT

DECLARATION

MR. M. T. FOLAMI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

DEDICATION

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER ONE
THE STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), also known as Industrial Training (IT) is a compulsory skills training program designed to expose and prepare students of the Nigerian universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, colleges of technology and colleges of agriculture for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after graduation.
The scheme also afford students the opportunity of familiarizing and exposing themselves to the needed experience in handling equipment and machinery that are usually not available in their institutions. Before the establishment of the scheme, there was a growing need or concern among industrialists, that graduates of institutions of higher learning lacked adequate practical background studies preparatory for employment in industries. Therefore, employers were of the opinion that the theoretical education in higher institutions was not responsive to the needs of the employers of labor.
1.1.1 HISTORY OF THE STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)
The introduction, initiation and design of the SIWES were done by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1973, to acquaint students with the skills of handling employers equipment and machinery. It was solely funded by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) during its formative years. However, due to financial constraints, the fund withdrew from the scheme in 1978.
The federal government noting the significance of the skills training which the SIWES is, handed the management of the scheme to both the National Universities Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in 1979. The management and implementation of the scheme was however reverted to the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) by the Federal government in November, 1984 and the administration was effectively taken over by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in July, 1985, with funding solely borne by the Federal Government
1.2. OBJECTIVES AND AIMS OF SIWES IN NIGERIA
Arising from the need of founding the organization or scheme, its (SIWES) objectives as an organization are as listed below:
Exposing students to the work method and techniques in handling equipment and machinery that may not be available in their institutions.
Providing an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to acquire Industrial skills and experience in their course of study, which are restricted to Engineering and Technology including Environmental studies and other courses that may be approved courses of NCE (Technical), NCE (Agricultural), NCE (Business), NCE (Fine and Applied Arts) and NCE (Home Economics) in colleges of Education are also included.
It provides students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work situation thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice
Preparing the students for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after their graduation.
Making the transition from school to the world of work easier and enhance students contact for later job placement.
Enlisting and strengthening of employers involvement in the entire educational process and prepare students for employment after graduation.
Provide students the opportunity to develop attitudes conducive to effective interpersonal relationships towards the job.
Ernest placement and strengthen employees involvement in the educational process of preparing students for employment in industries.
1.3. IMPORTANCE OF SIWES
It exposes students to more practical work methods and techniques.
It also prepares the students for the labor market after graduation.
It provides students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real life situations.
It strengthens links between the employers, universities and Industrial Training Fund (ITF).

CHAPTER TWO
THE TRANSMISSION COMPANY OF NIGERIA (TCN)

.1 THE POWER SYSTEM GRID IN NIGERIA

Electrical energy has a lot of importance all-over the world and therefore being used for different purposes in complexity or simplicity either for industrial purposes or for the satisfaction of the end user. We would have noticed that, the moment we switch on our electrical appliances at home, it works once there is electricity. Well, have you ever wondered how the electricity got to the appliance fast? This involves a very technical and systematic process on making the electricity available for our maximum usage.
Therefore, making this electrical power or energy circulate throughout the Nation (Nigeria), the process involves three (3) stages, which are the generation sector of the energy, the transmission of this energy and finally the distribution of the energy through a systematically arranged grid known as the National Grid.
THE GENERATION SECTOR (GENERATION STATIONS) IN NIGERIA
In Nigeria, a total number of twenty-three (23) generating power plants are available with the capacity to generate 11,165.4 MW of electricity in Nigeria. The energy are mostly generated through thermal and hydropower sources which comes from fossil fuels especially gases which accounts for eighty-six percent (86%) of the capacity in Nigeria with the remainder gotten from hydropower.
These sources of energy are used to set the turbine engine in motion to produce an induced electromotive force (voltage) ranging from 10-16kV. The Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), Papalanto Works Centre where I did my Industrial Training (IT) was linked with a generating station which has two (2) phases; Phase 1 having 8 generators (Gas Turbine Generator, GTG) and 4 transformers (Gas Main Transformers, GMT) with 2 generators serving a transformer each. The generators generate a voltage of 10kV before the transformer of 105MVA capacity is used to step it up to 330kV. Meanwhile, the Phase 2 has 6 generators (4 Gas Turbine Generators, GTG and 2 Steam Turbine Generators, STG) and 7 transformers (4 Gas Main Transformers, GMT and 3 Steam Main Transformers, SMT) but a transformer is inactive. The GTG generates 10kV each and the STG generates 16kV each and transferred into a step-up transformer of 150MVA capacity before it’s step-up to 330kV.
The Transformers have their primaries to be 10/16kV and their secondaries to be 330kV being a step-up transformer. It is generated at this high voltage to reduce power loss over a long distance along the transmission lines (conductors) which are connected to the National Grid from all generation stations in Nigeria for transmitting.
B. THE TRANSMISSION SECTOR IN NIGERIA
This is the next phase of getting the energy to the consumers, the transmission sector serves as an intermediary of the voltages transferred from the generation sector to the distribution sector, standing as an interface between them (generation and distribution).

THE OLORUNSOGO 330kV TRANSMISSION STATION PHASE 1 SWITCHYARD
This process starts by the transmission sector receiving High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) of 330kV from the generation and transporting it through transmission lines (conductors) to another transmission sub-station to step-down to 132kV by a transformer and further transmission to a sub-station to step-down to 33kV for transmitting it to a distribution substation or injection sub-station.
C. DISTRIBUTION SECTOR IN NIGERIA
This is the last stage of electricity before it gets to the consumers, they accept voltage at 33kV and step it down with the aid of distribution Transformers to 11kV which is in turn stepped down to 0.415kV and transferred through a low tension pole line phase (Red, Yellow, Blue and Neutral) which it is then tapped from any of the 3 phases and a Neutral to give the 240V (household voltage appliance).
The household voltage formula relationship:
Line voltage: VAB, V AC, VCA
Line voltage = √3 Phase voltage
Vpn = 415 / √3

2.2. HISTORY OF THE TRANSMISSION COMPANY OF NIGERIA (TCN)
The Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) manages the electricity transmission network in the country; the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) emerged from the former National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) now known as the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN).
It was brought about due to the fusion or merger of the Transmission and Operations sectors on April 1, 2004 and it was incorporated in November, 2005. It is one of the unbundled business units under the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), the company was licensed a transmission license on the 1 July, 2006 and another on the 10 June, 2013 for electricity transmission and system operations.
The Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) licensed activities includes electricity transmission, system operations and electricity trading. It comprises of 9 transmission Regions: Bauchi, Benin, Enugu, Kaduna, Kwara, Lagos, Osogbo, Port-Harcourt and Shiroro and a National Control Centre (NCC) at Osogbo with 3 Regional Control Centre (RCC) at Benin, Kaduna and Lagos.
It is responsible for evacuation electric power generated by the electricity Generating Companies (GenCos) and wheeling it to the Distribution Companies (DisCos). It provides the vital transmission infrastructure between the GenCos and the DisCos Feeder Sub-station.
2.2.1. VISION AND MISSION
The Company’s vision is to be “one of the leading electricity transmission company in the world with a solid reputation for delivering reliable, cost-effective electric power to the end users in Nigeria and in West-Africa sub-station.
It’s mission is to “cost-effective build, plan, provide operate and maintain the required assets, equipment along with a reliable and efficient transmission Grid network for evacuating and dispatching high quality electricity with minimal losses.
2.2.2. SCOPE OF THEIR ACTIVITIES
The activities being carried out by the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) revolves around the electricity transmission, system operations and electricity trading which are being carried out by the Transmission Service Provider (TSP), System Operations (SO) and Market Operations (MO) by collecting the electricity generated and wheeling it to the distribution company.
The Transmission Service Provider, TSP:
They oversee the development and maintenance of the transmission infrastructure. It is responsible for the National inner-connected transmission system of sub-stations and power lines and providing open access transmission services. It’s role is to maintain the physical infrastructure that make up the transmission Grid and expand it to new areas.
The System Operations, SO:
The SO manages the flow of electricity throughout the power system from generation to distribution companies. It operates the Grid Code for the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industries (NESI). The SO has the responsibility for ensuring that the Transmission Grid lines are reliable and maintaining the technical stability of the Grid through its operations of planning, dispatch and control of the electricity on the Grid.
The Market Operations, MO:
The MO administers the Market rules of the Nigerian Electricity Supply Industries, NESI. It is responsible for the administration of the Electricity Market and promoting efficiency in the market.
The Transmission Company of Nigeria, TCN, activities are generally based on;
Operate; expand/upgrade transmission facilities for efficient and effective wheeling of generated electricity.
Build a Transmission Grid that can efficiently evacuate all generated power.
Create adequate network redundancies to ensure at least 99.9% reliability.
Reduce transmission losses to less than 5%.
Pursue inter-connection with neighboring countries for power exchange with associated cost savings from the sharing of reserve capacity and energy resources.
Provide an effective project management system.
Provide standard human capacity development of the Transmission Company of Nigeria staff for high level performance.
Standardization of procurement procedure to reflect international standard.
Ensuring that safety and environmental issues are managed to meet international standards.
Improve the TCN’s revenue base to ensure a self-sufficient and self-sustaining company.

2.3. ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE OF THE TRANSMISSION COMPANY OF NIGERIA

The Organizational Structure of the TCN, Papalanto Works Centre

2.4. THE DEPARTMENTS AT THE TRANSMISSION COMPANY OF NIGERIA, TCN PAPALANTO WORKS CENTRE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
The Transmission Company of Nigeria, TCN, Papalanto Works Centre is divided into units of various departments which are 8 in numbers, namely;
Human Resources department
Accounting department
Protection, Control and Metering department
Electrical Maintenance department
System Lines Maintenance department
System Operation department
Drivers department
Stores department
HUMAN RESOURCES DEPARTMENT:
It has an acronym “HR”. They provide essential administrative support to the executives and departmental managers (HODs) of the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), Papalanto Works Centre and Olorunsogo as its Area Control Centre (ACC). The human resources department is able to assist with both complex and general administrative duties with their communication and data entry skills creating more time to carry out managerial tasks by the supervisors.
This department is responsible for the data processing, file maintenance, communication and clerical management functions of the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), Papalanto Works Centre.
ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT:
The primary purpose of every accounting department is the keeping of the ongoing financial record keeping. The account department base on the monetary information (operational expenses, salaries, donations, capital expenditures, investments, cash-flow, and utilities) which are all tracked or recorded on a monthly basis at a minimum.
The financial history of Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), Papalanto Works Centre are being created by this department which can be used in different ways as it gives the management of the firm the financial health and wealth status of the firm at any given time.
PROTECTION, CONTROL AND METERING DEPARTMENT:
Being referred to as PC&M( acronym), they can be termed as the life of the electrical and electronics equipments as they are responsible for ensuring correct and efficient protection of the various electrical equipment and devices in the transmission station. They also deal with the wiring protection or configuration of the electronic equipment(relays, circuit breakers) of the Transmission Company of Nigeria(TCN), Papalanto Works Centre in Olorunsogo station and the four(4) other substations under its jurisdiction.
They solely deal with the maintenance, protection and configurations of these equipment in the transmission station under their Area Control Centre (ACC). The department is also responsible for installation, commissioning and decommissioning, maintaining, troubleshooting and repairing of the critical systems used for detecting and responding to power system faults, controlling system devices and Metering schemes throughout the entire transmission Grid under its Area Control Centre.
ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT:
This department carries out both preventive and corrective maintenance as well as being responsible for installation, commissioning and decommissioning, troubleshooting, maintaining the equipments along with the Protection, Control and Metering( PC&M) crew as it involves the Protection of these equipments.
SYSTEM LINES MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT:
This department are responsible for the maintenance of the transmission lines in any form to avoid tripping on earth fault from the feeder’s relay, maintenance of the transmission lines towers which involves cutting of elongated trees that are surrounding and in between the transmission towers that can cause disturbance or resistance in the sense of tripping caused by earth fault and bush burning respectively.
The department is also responsible for the safety and maintenance of conductor lines in the switchyard grid throughout the stations under it’s ACC.
SYSTEM OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT:
The System Operations termed SO, which the workers can also be referred to as the Independent System Operators(ISO) are responsible for the management of the flow of electricity throughout the power system grid coming from the generation and going to the distribution end before getting to their respective end users. They are also responsible for ensuring that the transmission grid lines are reliable(they are maintaining their technical stability) through its operations by planning, dispatching and controlling of the Electricity flow on the Grid.
The Independent System Operators(ISO) monitors the functionality status by monitoring and operations of the whole system of the Transmission Company of Nigeria(TCN), Papalanto Works Centre before calling on the maintenance crews if a problem persists as well as the National Control Centre NCC. There operations involves the Generation Companies(GenCos) and the Distribution Companies(DisCos) in terms of load management(the quantity of electricity to be supplied and the quantity o the electricity needed respectively) and the enforcement of the Grid discipline.
DRIVERS DEPARTMENT:
The drivers department are responsible for the transportation of the maintenance crews(field workers) to any expected destination where there is a fault to be corrected. The drivers HOD I.e Head of Department is to direct, choose and issue the transportation fees in terms of petrol purchasing to a driver for transporting the crew to the point of work.
STORES DEPARTMENT:
This department is in charge of the safekeeping of all the electrical and electronic equipments to be used or to be repaired by the work centre in any necessary case. These equipments can be line Current Transformer(CT), line Voltage Transformer(VT), line Power Transformer(PT), Relay Sensors, Contactor motor, so on and so forth.

CHAPTER THREE
THE WORK DONE AND EXPERIENCE GAINED

3.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains the discussion of the work done and the experience gained during my four (4) months Industrial Training course which includes every training in each of the department visited or attached. The first most important experience gained is the importance and the very significance of safety because any single mistake made at switch yard will leads to instant death by electrocution, there is no second chance of mistake at the Transmission Company of Nigeria, TCN, because of the High Voltage Alternating Current, HVAC, the company is dealing with. Therefore, many emphasis and precautions were always taken before entering the switch yard to perform any kind of work scheduled to be done even for inspection purposes.
Having said this, the first and very crucial procedure to take before starting any work in the switchyard is to; collect the work permit or work and test permit from the operator on duty.
Have the operator open the isolator or the disconnected on both sides and finally.
Ensure that the operator on duty guarantees that the electrical equipments are safe to be worked on before proceeding with the work.
It is necessary for the maintenance crew to apply the ground wire so as to discharge(Earth) the electrical equipment of any residual charge, this is done to prevent electrocution of the maintenance crew by the residual charge inthe equipment.
Safety is very crucial to this job therefore it’s advisable that the maintenance crew are putting on there safety materials like the safety boots, hard hats (helmet) and so on. The scope of work done and experience gained will be analyzed below on each of the department visited in their order of visitation. During the period of four 4 months being spent under the supervision of the various head of department(s) HODs of the various departments I was posted to which are of namely, the Lines Maintenance Department (LMD), the Electrical Maintenance Department (EMD), the Protection, Control and Metering Department (PC&M) and the System Operation (SO).
3.2. THE LINES MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT, LMD
The period spent in this department was a total of four, 4 weeks (2nd December to 27th December, 2019). This department which is being lead by Engr. Oyetunde as the senior manager and the HOD of the department. The line maintenance department is responsible for the maintenance of the transmission line conductors in and out of the switchyard. Their activities evolves around carrying out of the preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance of the transmission line conductors in and out of the switchyard.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE: These are the maintenance done according to the name to prevent and unforseen faults tripping of the relays on the transmission line conductors. Examples of the preventive maintenance is the Inspection of the transmission towers and line tracing, the Inspection of the transmission towers Insulators (Glass disk Insulators) and the cutting of crippling plants around the transmission towers.
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE: These are the maintenance done for the actual repair of already existing faults on the transmission line conductors inside or outside the switchyard. Examples are the replacement of broken or melted conductors in the switchyard and the changing of the glass disk Insulators to the silicon composite Insulators.
3.2.1. THE WORK DONE AND EXPERIENCE GAINED IN LMD TCN, PAPALANTO
The scope and procedure of the works done as well as the experience gained after the work was done are going to be listed below. They are as follow;
Transmission tower lines inspection.
Replacement of the Yellow Phase conductor linking the bus isolator and the line breaker.
Replacement of the 330kV tower glass disk Insulators to a silicon composite Insulator.
3.2.1.1. THE TRANSMISSION TOWER LINE INSPECTION
The scope behind the inspection done on the transmission towers involves line tracing (it is the term used in transmission referring to the clearing of bushes or the cutting down of dangerously high trees beneath or close to the towers), cutting of cripplers ( plants that grows on the tower which tends to crawl up on the tower) and inspection of the glass disk Insulators in case of corrosion of the Insulator. These are the basis of preventive maintenance of the line maintenance department on the transmission towers.
EXPERIENCE GAINED
After undergoing the work process, I learned the following:
I can successfully locate a transmission tower number on the nameplate of the tower.
I understand the basics and importance of Line tracing.
The equipment used is the cutlass for cutting of the bushes around the towers.
3.2.1.2. THE REPLACEMENT OF THE YELLOW PHASE CONDUCTOR LINKING THE LINE ISOLATOR AND THE LINE CIRCUIT BREAKER
In the Papa 132/33kV transmission sub-station, the Yellow Phase conductor linking the isolator and line breaker was replaced due to its melting at isolator end of the conductor. The melting of the conductor (The Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) was as a result of the heat generated in the conductor when High Voltage Alternating Current, HVAC, pass through it.
The equipments and materials required to carry out the job are:
Ground stick and ground wire.
Spanners and a pair of pliers.
The Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced cable.
Measuring tape.
Hacksaw
Bolt and nut.
PROCEDURES ON THE JOB:
Apply the ground wire using the ground stick in order to discharge the electrical equipment from any residual charges by connecting the ground wire at the end of the isolator and circuit breaker while tightening it to the earth wire around the equipment respectively.
Lose the conductor linking the isolator and the circuit breaker at both ends and also the existing cable key because the key has also melted alongside the conductor with the aid of a spanner and a pair of pliers.
Now, measure the length of the cable to be fixed with the aid of a measuring tape, but if a measuring tape is not available, the cables maybe placed beside each other leaving a little margin for mistake.
Mark the length out on the new cable, tightening of the conductor at both ends before cutting is necessary so as to avoid the scattering or misalignment of the cable from its original position before cutting with the aid of a Hacksaw.
Fix the one end of the cable into a cable key, we can always use a pair of pliers to the conductor end in order to fit into the cable key.
Connect the conductor end with the cable key on the isolator end and tighten the connection by using bolt and nut while the other end of the conductor is screwed to the circuit breaker.
EXPERIENCE GAINED
At the end of the job, I learnt the following;
The reason for using a copper cable key in the connection.
How to cut and fix a conductor into a cable key of its size.
How to successfully apply a ground wire using a grounding stick to an electrical equipment.

THE LINES MAINTENANCE CREW AT WORK
3.2.1.3. REPLACEMENT OF THE 330kV TRANSMISSION TOWER GLASS DISK INSULATORS TO A SILICON COMPOSITE INSULATOR
The type of transmission tower is determined mostly on the number of Insulators the transmission tower gantries or cross arms are carrying. For further explanation, the 330kV transmission towers carries a total of 18 or 20 Insulators on each gantry respectively, while the 132kV transmission towers carries a total of 11 or 10 Insulators on their gantries respectively and the 33kV transmission towers carries 3 each on their gantries.
The replacement of Olorunsogo Ayede 330kV transmission tower lines Insulator after Idi-aba, Abeokuta were replaced from the previous glass disk Insulators to a silicon composite Insulators.
The following apparatus or equipment are needed, they are;
The belts: These belts are being used by the climbers (the contract engineers that climbs the transmission tower), it enables them to hang up in the air while they work.
Cutlasses: They are used to cut down bushes and clippers surrounding the transmission tower so as to create space for the climbers to climb and other workers to stand and assist the work progress.
The grounding stick and ground wire: The grounding stick and ground wire are being used for discharging the skyline or the conductor on the gantries of the transmission tower by connecting the end of the ground wire to the skyline and the other end to the fastened to the transmission tower.
The hook ladder: The hook ladder is being hung on the gantry of the transmission tower, it is very useful in helping the climbers get closer to the conductors before getting on the conductor after grounding the conductor.
The High Line: These are much thicker ropes used for transferring virtually all of the equipments which range from the grounding stick and wire, the hook ladder, the composite Insulators, the conductor yoke and the pull lift to be used except from the G-shackle and wire spring from the ground to the tower climbers and from the tower gantries to the ground.
The Conductor Yoke: The conductor yoke is placed on the conductors of the tower gantry. It is used to suspend or tension the conductors before connecting it with the pull-lift.
The Pull-lift: The Pull-lift is used to jack up the conductor yoke to enable the proper tensioning of the conductors or skyline.
Procedures for the Job:
The bushes around the transmission tower is going to be cleared if there are any bushes around the tower with the aid of the cutlass.
As at the time of clearing the bushes, the climbers woube getting prepared by fastening their belts on them and the high line is then strapped to their belts while they climb the tower.
When the climbers get to the tower gantry they are to work on, the high line is then thrown down for knotting, after the knotting, the ground stick and ground wire is passed up to the climbers for the earthing of the skyline, the hook ladder is then passed up to them after the earthing is done.
The pull-lift and conductor yoke is knotted to the high line and transferred to the climbers, the conductor yoke is fitted to rest on the skyline while the pull-lift is hastened on the conductor yoke, when the pull-lift is being jacked it cause the tensioning of the skyline.
When the skyline is finally properly tensioned, the glass disk Insulator contract for its removal. During this process, the G-shackle and the wire spring should be prepared by fastening it to the bottom leg of the tower.
At this point the high line is hastened around the G-shackle and wire spring for the easy dropping of the glass disk Insulator. Also, the silicon composite Insulator is tightened to the high line to be transferred to the climbers. Then, as the glass disk Insulator is coming down, the silicon composite Insulator is going up to the climbers.
EXPERIENCE GAINED
The replacement of the Olorunsogo-Ayede 330kV transmission tower glass disk Insulators to silicon composite Insulators was indeed the best experience I had, I also learnt a lot during the course of the job which were very important and crucial points to observe, and they are as listed below;
I learnt how to differentiate between transmission towers of different voltage ratings.
I learnt how to knot the equipments around the high line to be transferred to the climbers.
I also learnt how to separate the glass disk Insulators into smaller pieces.
I was lectured over the advantages of the silicon composite Insulators over the glass disk Insulators which are the glass disk Insulators gets corroded and break off which can cause the cutting or tripping of the skyline when it breaks, the advantage that the silicon composite Insulators do not rust during the harmattan season while the glass disk Insulators do and finally for the that the silicon composite Insulators are more durable, weighs less when compared to the glass disk insulators and the silicon composite Insulators last longer than that of the glass disk Insulators in terms of their respective expiry dates.
3.3. THE ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT, EMD
After finishing my schedule with the line maintenance department, LMD I waposted to the Electrical Maintenance Department, EMD, where I spent another five(5) weeks (30th December, 2019 to the 31st January, 2020). The department is lead by Engr. Babatunde as the senior manager of the department and the HOD. This department is responsible for the maintenance and repair of all the Electrical equipments in the switchyard of the area control center and the other sub-station under its jurisdiction.
The scope of activities done in this department are preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE in the sense that Preventive maintenance are procedures carried out on the equipment to ensure proper functioning of the equipments and avoid any unforeseen faults or breakdown. For example: refilling of the gas in the circuit breaker, the annual preventive maintenance (APM), topping of the insulation oil of the current transformer, lubrication of the movable parts of a line isolator and bus isolator et cetera.
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE is a type of maintenance that is carried out to correct or repair any existing faults in the switchyard. For example: the repair of the Yellow Phase oil leakage, repair of the bus isolator broken finger, illumination (fixing of new lighting bulbs).
3.3.1. THE WORK DONE AND EXPERIENCE GAINED
Under the five 5 weeks program spent in this department, I participated in the following jobs listed below:
Topping of the insulation oil of the line current transformer, CT.
Refilling of the Sulphur hexafluoride gas, SF6 gas, in the circuit breaker, CB.
The conduction of the Annual Preventive Maintenance, APM.
Illumination of the switchyard.
The repair of the Yellow Phase current transformer oil leakage.
The repairs of the bus isolator broken finger.
Lubrication of the stiffed movable parts of the Line isolator and the bus isolator.
3.3.1.1. Topping of the insulation oil of the line current transformer
The line current transformer, CT, can be simply defined as an electrical equipment used to measure or determine the total amount of current flowing in the power system circuit. It also serves as a relay protection, in the sense that it assist the relay panel in the detection of over current, short circuit and earth fault as the current transformer helps to measure the current in the power system circuit. Therefore, any current above the rated current would send a signal to the relay panel causing the relay to trip.
There are four, 4, types of current transformer which are the Window type, Bushing type, the Bar type and the Wound type of current transformer(s). The type of current transformer used in the transmission station grid is the Bushing current transformer which are specifically constructed to fit around a bushing. They are also mounted in a transformer or a circuit breaker mostly used for current greater than 100A.
The insulating oil used to fill up the current Transformers are often called transformer oil, which are mainly mineral oil. There are different colors of a transformer oil, they include; Silver, Gold and plain color et cetera. The functions of a transformer oil is as follows;
Cooling of the transformer because the current transformer carries a lot of current due to the amount of power flowing through it, then heat would be generated.
The oil serve as an insulation medium for the current transformer for preventing the injected current from getting to the body of the current transformer so as to avoid electrocution of the maintenance workers.
The insulation oil also helps suppress corona discharge and arcing in the transformer.
The apparatus or tools needed to complete the job above are as follows:
Ground stick and ground wire
Manual hand pump and hose
Spanners
Ladder and an iron gasket.
Procedures on the Job
Open the bus isolator on both ends before applying the temporary ground to the Electrical equipment.
Fix the iron gasket to the hose and then tighten it to the current transformer oil tap with the manual hand pump placed inside the transformer oil container.
After this open the current transformer oil valve while pumping the transformer oil into the current transformer by turning the manual hand pump handle in a clockwise direction.
Fill the current transformer to three-quarter of the current transformer oil gauge to avoid the bursting of the current transformer oil bulb.
Close the current transformer oil valve and withdraw the remaining transformer oil in the hose into the container by turning the manual hand pump handle in the anticlockwise direction to reduce oil spillage or wastage.
Finally, remove the temporary ground wire and close the bus isolator on both ends.
Experience Gained
At the Ota 132/33kV substation which the topping of the insulation oil was done, I gained the following experience:

1. I learnt that before beginning any job in the switchyard, it is compulsory to collect the work or work and test permit and ensure the operator guarantees the electrical equipment is safe to work on.
2. It is also important to apply the ground wire with the aid of a ground stick for proper earthing of the equipment.
3. I learnt how to plan and improvise based on the job at hand before beginning.
4. After the job, carry out the functionality and operational test.

THE EQUIPMENTS USED IN TOPPING THE LINE CURRENT TRANSFORMER

3.3.1.2. REFILLING OF THE SF6 GAS IN A CIRCUIT BREAKER
The circuit breaker is an electrical switching device which can be operated manually and automatically for controlling and protecting an electrical powered system. The circuit breaker is used for protecting or clearing any short circuit fault or any other type of electrical fault( such as electric cable faults), therefore residing to high fault current flowing through this equipment as well as the power network itself from damaging the equipment and the network permanently.
The Circuit breakers of the high voltage alternating current varies in the form of names from different producers, but they are similar in their performance either by their operating mechanism or their quenching mechanism.
In the sense of operating mechanism of Circuit breakers, it can be categorized into three, namely;
Spring operated circuit breaker
Pneumatic circuit breaker
Hydraulic circuit breaker.
It can also be categorized by its quenching mechanism, namely;
Oil circuit breaker.
Air circuit breaker.
Sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) circuit breaker.
Vacuum circuit breaker.
The job above is done in a spring charged circuit breaker by operation and the sulphur hexafluoride gas SF6 by quenching mechanism.
The function of the sulphur hexafluoride gas in the circuit breaker is used in the arc quenching medium of the circuit breaker as the sulphur hexafluoride gas is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The sulphur hexafluoride gas is used in the circuit breaker because the contacts of the breaker are opened in a high-pressure flow of sulphur hexafluoride gas and an arc is struck between them.
The sulphur hexafluoride gas captures the conducting free electrons in the arc to form relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to extinguish the arc.
The apparatus used in this job are a gas hose return valve adaptor and the sulphur hexafluoride gas cylinder to fill the circuit breaker with.
Procedures for refilling the sulphur hexafluoride gas in a circuit breaker
Open the bus isolators at both ends and open the circuit breaker.
Prepare the apparatus by screwing the gas hose return valve adaptor to the sulphur hexafluoride gas cylinder before connecting it to the circuit breaker. Ensure the connection is tightened and secure if not apply threading to make the connection tight.
Open the circuit breaker sulphur hexafluoride gas tap before opening the sulphur hexafluoride gas cylinder tap.
Fill the circuit breaker continuously checking on the sulphur hexafluoride gas indicator, it is to be filled to the green bar on the indicator usually at 0.42MPa equivalent to 4.2 Bar and 60Pa/in2 , the indicator is always in any of the metrics reading listed.
Lock the circuit breaker sulphur hexafluoride gas tap, then lock the sulphur hexafluoride gas cylinder respectively before detaching the gas hose return valve adaptor from the circuit breaker.
Experience Gained
I learnt that it is always important to be safety conscious by ensuring the operator guarantees the safety of the equipment and i learnt how to conduct the refilling of the sulphur hexafluoride gas of a circuit breaker.

THE SF6 GAS CYLINDER

The annual preventive maintenance (APM), mostly done on circuit breakers in evolves two(2) processes, which are the cleaning aspect and the carrying out of the operational and functional test.
Procedures for Carrying Out an Annual Preventive Maintenance
The cleaning process: Before commencing the annual preventive maintenance, it is necessary to clean up the circuit breaker in and out by removing any form of dirt around the circuit breaker and cleaning the Sulphur Hexafluoride gas indicator is as important as the rest of the circuit breaker.
The Operational and Functional Test: This involves the checof all the electrical equipments that makes up the circuit breaker and checking all other materials used for the running of the circuit breakers are in the right condition. For example, the hydraulic oill that indicates the the actuating state of the circuit breaker, the SF6 gas indicator the actuating coil state if It is not burnt and the motor contactors. After all these checks, the operational test and functional test are carried out by opening and closing the circuit breaker locally(at the circuit breaker switch) , the operator is also contacted to operate it remotely at his station.
Experience Gained
After the end of this job, I can conduct a proper operational and functional test with a proper annual preventive maintenance.
3.3.1.4. THE ILLUMINATION OF THE OLORUNSOGO 330KV SWITCH YARD
The illumination of the switch yard can be referred to as the switch yard lighting. It is done by providing light bulbs for illumination in the switch yard so as to counter-effect the darkness at night for security purpose o the switch yard.
PROCEDURES AND EXPERIENCE GAINED
Just like the Normal household bulbs, it also gets burnt so it is going to be replaced by another bulb, but in some cases the bulb might not be the problem but the lamp holder might be. Therefore, the bulb is tested in anoda lamp holder before being condemned and the lamp holder is also changed if discovered faulty.
All the above mentioned are the experience gained from the switch yard illumination job.
3.3.1.5. REPAIRS OF THE YELLOW PHASE LINE CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT) OIL LEAKAGE
In the OTA 132/33kV transmission station, it was discovered that there was an oil leakage in the yellow phase line current transformer which was caused by the crack in the oil bulb and it’s shaft at the top of the Current transformer cap.
PROCEDURES AND EXPERIENCE GAINED
Before starting the job, the remaining transformer oil in the line current transformer was withdrawn into a separate container using the same method as of refilling the insulating oil of the current transformer.
A long ladder is rested on the CT in order to make the maintenance crew reach the current transformer cap for washing of the grease off the body of the CT. Then the loosing of the oil bulb is done.
Since the oil bulb has a crack, it requires a new oil bulb but due to unavailability of a new oil bulb, the crack was closed using glue and ashes, a new shaft was also cut out from a cardboard of 5pieces to make the existing shaft stronger.
The experience gained from the job procedures above made me understand that there are no useless equipment or damaged equipments in engineering it can always be repaired.
3.3.1.6. REPAIRS OF THE BUS ISOLATOR BROKEN FINGER SOCKET
The bus isolator fingers are in-built socket controlled by a screw and a spring to create an effective contact between the finger and the socket so as to transmit electricity from the finger end to the socket end for further transmission. The fault encountered was that the screw and the spring on the socket end of the bus isolator got broken due to rust.
Procedures
First find the replacement of the screw and spring of the same length and put it in its right position.
Make sure it is screwed tightly with the socket of the bus isolator.
Grease the end of the socket and the finger of the isolator so as to counter-effect the rusted edge of the equipment and reduce friction.
Now closed the isolator to confirm the finger and the socket are in the right sequence, keep pushing them together till they are connected tightly.
If the finger and socket does not fit in, then improvise on how to make them key together, in our case we made use of a plastic ladder and sticks to push the finger into the socket.
Experience Gained
I learnt that the most important thing before beginning a job is to know where the fault is, know the required tools and materials needed in order to reduce stress for the job and finally, to improvise on the job is as important as hard work, dedication and patience while working on the job at hand.
3.3.1.7. LUBRICATION OFTHE STIFFED MOVABLE PARTS OF AN ISOLATOR AND BUS ISOLATOR
The isolators and bus isolators are electrical equipments used for conducting electricity from the grid to the circuit breaker and from the circuit breaker back to the grid and conducting electricity from the busbars to respective electrical equipments and from those equipments back to the busbar on the grid.
The problem encountered is that the isolators and bus isolators are not moving(stiffed) the way the should when operated both electrically and manually.
Procedures and Experience Gained
The use of scalp folding would be needed as a result of the height at which the isolators are. Therefore, the scalp folding would be arranged beside the isolator to be worked on to a more comfortable height to work from.
Lubricants like grease, oil, dissolving solvents would be applied to the movable parts of the isolator while it is being cranked( I.e. opened and closed continuously till it moves properly).
I learnt that even without lubricating the isolator just cranking it can make it move freely, since the stiffness was caused by not using or operating the equipment for a long period of time.
3.4. THE PROTECTION CONTROL AND METERING (PC&M) DEPARTMENT
Afterthe end of my schedule at the Electrical Maintenance department, I continued my industrial training at the Protection, Control and Metering department which is a duration of 5 weeks (3rd, March to 7th, April, 2020), the department is led by the HOD named ENGR. Adegbenle.
The PC&M is a technical department which is responsible for ensuring correct and efficient protection of the various electrical components and devices in the transmission station. They do this by carrying out correct circuit connection, clearing of faults, installation, programming and wiring protection on metering devices like circuit breaker, current transformer, relay, energy meter and so on. They achieve this with the aid of a circuit diagram of the equipment to be worked on designed by the manufacturer of the devices. The department also conducts various scheduled maintenance and tests on power equipments such as the annual preventive maintenance.
3.4.1. WORK DONE UNDER THE PROTECTION CONTROL AND METERING (PC&M)
The work done under the protection control and metering department are listed below;
The energy reading for the end of the month.
Annual preventive maintenance of circuit breakers.
Maintenance of circuit breakers.
The design of a protection wiring scheme modification.
Rearrangement of the wiring system of a circuit breaker.
Installation and commissioning of a transformer.

3.4.1.1. THE ENERGY READING FOR THE END OF THE MONTH

The term Energy in the TCN is referred to the act of collecting energy or power to be transmitted from the Generating stations to the Distribution stations. Through this process arises the generation of money to be paid by the Distribution companies in respect to the amount of power received by them from the transmission station in turn the capital given is directed to the generation and transmission company for each month.
Scope of the job
The total energy generated by the generating station for a month has been accumulated in an electrical device called The energy meter. Then the energy meter is set to display the energy accumulated over a period of a month.
The value given by the energy meter of the Generating station is then compared with that of the transmission station.
THE ENERGY METER

3.4.1.2. ANNUAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Annual preventive maintenance is a schedule maintenance of power equipments like the circuit breaker, transformer, current transformer. The annual preventive maintenance is done so as to prevent any unforeseen faults that could possibly occur in the equipments.
Scope of the job
First, the equipment(circuit breaker) is cleaned and dusted with a broom to remove all sorts in the breaker and clean the SF6 gas indicator casing if dirty.
The functionality and operational test is then carried out during this process, the circuit bis test run by opening and closing the breaker locally( manually) if it operates then it is tested on remote from the control room.
3.4.1.2. MAINTENANCE OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The maintenance or repairs of circuit breakers are corrective actions taking on a circuit breakers that developed faults over time.
The following jobs are based on the maintenance of circuit breakers;
The replacement of burnt closing coil in the circuit breaker.
The failure of the hydraulic oil pump motor to actuate.
The failure of a circuit breaker not to close.
3.4.1.2.1. REPLACEMENT OF BURNT CLOSING COIL IN THE CIRCUIT BREAKER
The closing coil or tripping coil energize the breaker by putting more pressure on the hydraulic oil pump motor to actuate the hydraulic oil for the closing operation of the circuit breaker.
Scope of the job
The circuit breaker C.B #3112 failed to close after investigation, it was discovered that the closing coil was burnt. Therefore, the closing coil was first measured to confirm it’s actually burnt in ohms(resistance), the result was above 30 ohms which means it is damaged, a good coil value must be less than 30 ohms.
A newly reminded coil of 24.6 ohms was used to replace the burnt coil, it was inserted into its coil case . Ensure the push button on the case is free.
Operate the circuit breaker locally and remotely to confirm its actuate the oil when closed and opened.
3.4.1.2.2. FAILURE OF THE HYDRAULIC OIL PUMP MOTOR TO ACTUATE DUE TO DEFECTIVE MOTOR RELAY CONTACTOR
The Hydraulic Oil Pump Motor: This is an electrical device that comes up or operates whenever the pressure in the circuit breaker is getting low, it operates so as to actuate or pressurize the circuit breaker hydraulic oil system to a pressure between 27MPa to 30MPa.
The Motor Contactor: The motor relay Contactor is an electrical equithat picks up the D.C. current signal from the source and sends it to the hydraulic oil pump motor in order to actuate the hydraulic oil system.
An Over-load Relay y Contactor: It is an electrical equipment that serves as protection for the motor contactors in case of a power surge or high current.
Scope of the Job
During the annual preventive maintenance of the circuit breaker #3223, when the functional test was carried out , it eas discoveredthat the hydraulic oil pump motor failed to come up, after investigation it was discovered that the motor contactor was defective.
The motor contactors and over-load relay contactor was replaced to a better one and operated which the circuit breaker then became ready for service.
3.4.1.2.3. THE FAILURE OF A CIRCUIT BREAKER TO CLOSE
All the faults that occurs in a circuit breaker causes it not to close, the fault encountered or discovered in the circuit breaker was that, the circuit breaker failed to close due to excess SF6 gas in the circuit breaker, this was caused by expansion of the gas due to increase in temperature of the atmosphere.
Scope of the Job
The SF6 gas was maintained (reduced) to its normal gauge of between 27MPa to 30MPa, in this case 28MPa.

3.4.1.3. THE DESIGN OF A PROTECTION WIRING SCHEME MODIFICATION
In the OTA 132/33kV transmission station, the OTA/OGBA 132kV line tripped on no relay indication. Therefore, a protection wiring scheme modification is done on the relay.
A protection wiring scheme modification can be referred to as the act of designing a new modified wiring for the protection of a relay. The protection wiring scheme modification is designed so as to meet the need of the fault a ground.
Scope of the Job
The fault in the relay panel is that the relay tripped without no indication, that is, the tripping or trip signal did not come from the Optimal distance relay or the Backup Siemens O/C + E/F relay.
Therefore, a protection wiring scheme diagram is designed to discriminate the trip signal between the Optimal distance relay and the backup Siemens O/C + E/F. That is whenever the relay trips on either each way it trips , the trip signal would be help down to know or indicate the type of tripping.
The connection is then carried out in the relay panel according to the protection wiring scheme diagram.
.
THE WIRING SCHEME MODIFICATION DIAGRAM
3.4.1.4. REARRANGEMENT OF THE WIRING SYSTEM OF A CIRCUIT BREAKER
In the OTA Transmission station, it was discovered that the newly installed circuit breaker wiring connections are not in comparison with manufacturer’s circuit diagram.
Scope of the Job
The circuit breaker manufacturer’s circuit diagram is used to know how the circuit breaker should be connected.
The number tags and their functions are compared in the circuit breaker and circuit diagram to be traced out if they are not the same, they are to be corrected.
After all the tracing and corrections, the circuit breaker is operating both locally and remotely.

The Circuit diagram used during the rewiring of the circuit breaker

3.4.1.5. INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONG OF A TRANSFORMER
Before the installation and commissioning of a transformer, the following maintenance tests and services are carried out on the transformer and they are as follows;
Calibration and tests of the the 3.3kV indoor bus bars and associated components
Calibration and tests of incomer 3.3kV breaker, transformer primary and secondary breaker.
Calibration and tests of transformer primary and secondary current transformer (CTs)
Calibration and tests of the transformer relays.
Checks and tests of underground cables associated with transformer secondary side.
Checks, wiring and tests on transformer protective device systems.
Site confirmatory tests on the transformer after repairs.
Maintenance of transformer primary and secondary panels.
The checks and tests of the substation earthing system.
The irregular voltage of 3.3 kV occurs in the indoor circuit breaker of the incoming transformer panel because it was built by the Chinese, therefore, the indoor circuit breaker contains all its necessary protection.
Scope of the Job
The Calibration and Tests of the 3.3kV Indoor Bus-Bars, the Incomer 3.3kV Breaker, Transformer Primary and Secondary Breaker and Associated Components:
Under this maintenance, the insulation test of the 3.3kV indoor bus bars are done, it is done so as to know the rate of preventing the leakage current (I.e energy loss) using a high voltage Megger of a constant voltage of 5000V which measures in megaohms. The reason behind this test is to know the insulation value of each bus bar phase, a good insulation value ranges from 180000 to 200000(infinity) megaohms.
The higher the resistance value gotten from each phase, the better the chances of preventing leakage current.
The Calibration and Tests of the Transformer Primary and Secondary Current Transformer (CT):
The importance of the test on the primary current transformer is done so as to confirm the functionality of the current transformer. It is done with the aid of a Primary Current Injection Test Set called Megger, in this way, a current of 200A is injected into the primary, a current not less than 2.5A would be in the Secondary.
The Secondary Current Transformer is also tested by the aid of a Secondary Current Injection Test Set called Hypotonic. It is used to set the minimum current at which the indoor circuit breaker relay trips, which was set t to trip at a current of 3.3A, it helps improve the relay protection of the indoor circuit breaker.
The Calibration, Checks and Tests of the Transformer Relays abd the Underground Cables Associated with the Transformer Secondary Side:
The calibration and tests of the transformer relay is done by checking the resistance level of the transformer phase with the aid of a Megger. The checks done on the Underground cables is done to confirm the Underground cables are not damaged on the outside and a continuity test is also done on the cable by the aid of a digital meter.
Checks, Wiring and Tests on the Transformer Protective Device Systems:
Under this procedure, checks are done on the control cable if it is intact, the checks include the oil temperature alarm, the pressure relief trip, and so on.
The tests done includes the functionality test of the protection devices of the transformer which includes the Buchholz relay, Earth fault relay, Over-current relay, Differential relay and digital relay by actuating it to be in sequence o alarm by putting in a positive to make it trip for confirming if it is working properly. They include; The magnetization test, Core balance test, Ratio test, short circuit test and insulation resistance test.
Maintenance of Transformer Primary and Secondary Panels, Checks and Tests of the Substation Earthing System and the Site Confirmatory Tests on the Transformer after Repairs:
The maintenance of the transformer primary and secondary panel involves checking of the transformer primary and secondary panel in order to remove any form of moisture for preventing Earth fault in terms of voltage transfer in the transformer through induction to avoid earth fault(E/F) trip.

3.4.2. Experience Gained
Under my stay in the PC&M department during their work apart from the carrying out of a annual preventive maintenance of a circuit breaker, they work with the manufacturer wiring diagram of the equipment to be worked on. Therefore, I gained the following;
I learnt how to take energy readings from a meter.
In the maintenance(repair) of a circuit breaker, if the circuit breaker fails to close, I learnt that it is important to check and investigate the fault in the circuit breaker before beginning the job.
3.5. THE SYSTEM OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT
The System Operations also known as the Independent System Operators(ISO) department. At the end of my schedule with the Protection, Control and Metering department, I resumed at the system operations department(ISO) where I spent three weeks (9th to 28th of March , 2020). This department is led by the principal manager named ENGR. K. Muyiwa as the HOD. This department is responsible for the monitoring of the electrical transmission line, grid and the switch yard including the faults in the control room or with the relay panels.
The functions of an operator in the control room involves the following:
The monitoring of the proper operation of the station equipments in the control room and in the switch yard.
The quick response to system disturbance. In the sense of fluctuations of the loads on the grid which in turn leads to the fluctuation of voltage, current and frequency in the grid.
The load management of the electricity system grid: Load management can be referred to as the means or way of keeping the electricity system grid in equilibrium, whereby the power distribution across the national grid results to the power demanded. In other words, it is the balancing of the power on the grid with the load on the grid to be at equilibrium.
The collection of data from various substations under the Area Control Center i.e. the ACC. This data include the voltage transmitted by the station at every hour interval.
The recording of events that is being carried in and out of the station. I.e the station situation report and the filling of the daily logbook.
The carrying out of switching operations and to ensure safety of personnel and system equipments.
To make sure that the power transmitted from the Generating company to the grid at a minimum load loss.
3.5.1. WORK DONE UNDER THE SYSTEM OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT
Under the system operations department, the work done there are on a daily basis which includes;
Filling of the hourly load reading sheet at an interval of an hour(0000HRS, 0100HRS, 0200HRS, 0300HRS, …).
Taking of the periodic energy readings at an interval of 6 hours daily (0000HRS, 0600HRS, 1200HRS and 1800HRS).
Updating of the transmitted voltage data collected from various substations under the Olorunsogo Area Control Center, ACC into the Regional Control Center, RCC which is the Ikeja West Transmission Station for safe keeping of the data soft copy.
The Transmission Station situation report has to be filled everyday for the previous day i.e the station report for Tuesday is going to submitted on Wednesday.
All the work mentioned above are daily activities;
The issuing of operating form.
3.5.2. WORK EXPERIENCE GAINED
The experiences gathered during the attachment in this department are as follows:
Routine inspection and daily checks: this involves a walk around the switchyard by the operator, inspecting and checking the working conditions of the equipment, ensuring the pressure in the gas circuit breakers are normal, taking readings of the temperature of the windings of the transformers in the station, the checking of 110 and checking the electrolyte level in the batteries (for batteries that use electrolyte) so it does nothing get below the minimum, also inspecting the terminals for corrosion.
Taking hourly readings from the SCADA system form all the outgoing terminal feeders and the periodic energy readings at six hours interval.
Receiving and passing reports: reports including tripping and transformer and feeder load flow are received from substations within the area control; reports of the station activities are also passed to the Regional Control Centre (RCC).
Filling of the station situation report.
How to apply for, and issue station guarantee for several purposes. Also learnt how to isolate and de-energize a line, also to lift isolation and energize.
How to apply for an outage request.
3.5.3. EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS USED IN THE SYSTEM OPERATIONS
In the department of the system operations, the following equipments or tools and materials are listed below:
Frequency monitor
Relay panels
The 110V DC battery bank
A desktop system
The Log book
Operating forms
Energy meter
Hourly reading sheets, and
The SCADA
FREQUENCY MONITOR: The frequency monitor is used to know the frequency of the electricity national grid. The frequency is said to be uniform across the national grid all over the Transmission Station in the country. The frequency on the national grid is highly load dependent, therefore it fluctuates based on the load generated and demanded, that is, if the power generated is lower than the power demanded, then the frequency is going to be low and if the power generated is higher than the power demanded, then the frequency would be high.
The normal range of values for frequency is between 50.1 Hz to 50.5 Hz. Therefore, anything lower than 50.1 Hz means the energy generated is low and if it continues to drop, then the NCC would be informed and they would direct some station to drop load from their feeders. This process is known as load shedding (load shedding is the deliberate removal of loads from a feeder so as to either boost the frequency rationing or as well as the transformer capacity). If the frequency tends to rise above 50.6Hz means the energy generated is higher than the energy demanded, then the NCC is also informed which would call for load picking. In other words, all these processes are known as load management.

Relay panels: Relay panels are constructed housing for the relays which helps to facilitate the easier and faster detection of faults as they are sensitive to any fluctuation on the grid so as to give the alarm once a fault or fluctuation is detected.

The 110V direct current (DC) battery bank: The 110V DC battery bank is termed generally as the life of any transmission station at the operations department. This because it is responsible for the powering kf all the relays and control panels equipments used for monitoring the grid. It aids in relay co-ordination, relay co-ordination is the activity of a relay to detect faults and cut off that fault only with the help of the battery bank, because it is the battery bank that provides the electrical power to send signals to the circuit breaker in order to trip while cutting the fault off.

Desktop computer: The computer is one of the tools or equipments used by the operators. It is used to upload the load data collected from other substations, to be filled into the RCC platform. It is used for the safe keeping of the station situation report soft copy, the processing and issuing of outage request form etc.

Log book: The log book can be referred to as a material used for the recording of the daily activities in the office, it is more of a material used for documenting the summary of all occurrence including the time they occurred for safe keeping of the hard copy after all important details and data had been logged into the system.
The operating forms: The operating forms are important forms conveying details on the type of equipment to be worked on, the name of the leader of the maintenance crew to work on the equipment, the name of the operator on duty as at the time the job is to commence and the time the job starts and is expected to end. These operating forms are to be filled by the operator on duty and the permit holder that is the leader of the maintenance crew, when a job is to proceed at the station. There are seven(7) types of operating forms, namely; Operating form(O.F) 1, O.F 2, O.F 3, O.F. 4, O.F 11, O.F 19 and Hold-off tags.
Operating Form1: The operating form 1 stands for the application for protection which is filled by the Transmission Service Provider, TSP, before commencing any job.
Operating Form 2: This is known as the Work permit, it is filled by the operator on duty and the permit holder. This type of form is given when the job involved does not require any testing for functionality.
Operating Form 3: It serves as a Station Guarantee. A Station Guarantee form is a type of form given by the Transmission Company of Nigeria to either the Generating company or the Distribution company by the operator on duty so as to assure the safety of an equipment from the Transmission end before working on the equipment at there end.
Operating Form 4: This is the Work and Test permit, it is similar to the work permit, but the only difference is that this permit gives room for the testing of the electrical equipment.
Operating Form 11: It is known as the self protection form. The difference
between the O.F 11 an other Operating Forms is that the equipment involved with O.F 11 are low voltage equipments which does not require any necessary isolation by the operator. Examples of this kind of jobs are that of maintenance of battery banks and illumination of the switch yard.
Operating Form 19: This is the Trouble Report. The Trouble Report is being filed by the operators and submitted via emails to the TSP whenever they notice any fault on any equipments that needs attention or repairs.
Hold-off Tags: This is a kind of special permit used by the TSP crew when working on the Transmission line that ensures guarantee on jobs that does not require an outage on that line, but if the line should trip, then the operator must communicate with the maintenance crew to confirm if it was their action that lead to the tripping.

THE OPERATING FORMS
Energy Meter: The energy meter is a digital electronic equipment that store and measure the energy that is being transmitted by the transformer it is being connected to for over a long period of time. It is used to record the periodic energy readings at the interval of 6 hours daily.

The Hourly Reading Sheet: This is also a material used by the operator daily. It is used to take Hourly load read reading which contains the power(MW), Current(Amps), Voltage(kV), the Loads (MW) on the grid and (MVAR) at hourly basis, with the aid of the SCADA system.

The SCADA: SCADA is an acronym for Supervisory, Control And Data Acquisition. It’s function is to Supervise, Control and Acquiring Data.
A SCADA system includes the following:
One or more computers connected to each other, perform the Supervisory functions and implement human-machine interface (HMI).
A communication network with a variety of transmission media and communication protocols, able to ensure the correct exchange of data between peripheral devices and Supervisory computers.
A SCADA software is an integrated development environment, which provides all the tools necessary to create SCADA applications, designed to run on Supervisory computers and perform the functions that are typical of a SCADA system; Supervisory, Control and Data Acquisition.
The Supervisory functions of a SCADA allow s the operator to have an immediate view of the process status and to control how the process evolves over time by analyzing the sequence operating states. The main task of the supervision is to realize the human-machine interface HMI to be effective.
The Control function of a SCADA system consists in the ability of the control system to interact with the controlled process, in order to modify its evolution according to pre-establish rules or decisions taken by the operator.
Data Acquisition is the main functions among those performed by SCADA system. The data acquisition not only means transfer of information from peripherals devices to Supervisory computers, but also transfer of information in the opposite direction, in order to allow the supervisory system to get all the information on the process status that are necessary to allow the observation. It’s task is to ensure the error-free transfer of information between process and supervision.

CHAPTER FOUR
THE EQUIPMENTS USED IN THE PAPALANTO WORKS CENTRE

4.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter entails the equipment used, the functions of the equipment used and the descriptions of their usage during the cause of this attachment at Transmission Company of Nigeria, Ganmo.
The equipment used is as follow;
Auto-Transformer
Wave traps
Instrument transformers
The circuit breakers
The insulation resistance tester (Megga)
The leakage current tester (Clamp on)
Earthing transformer
Bus isolators and Isolators
Relays and control panels
The Secondary current injection test set.
4.2. THE FUNCTIONS AND USAGE OF THE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
THE AUTO-TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another without changing frequency. Auto-transformer is a single-winding transformer with taps. With primary voltage applied to the primary terminals, the required secondary voltage from zero volts to the rated primary volts can be availed from the secondary by varying the taps.
FUNCTIONS OF AN AUTO-TRANSFORMER
Auto-transformer is a power transformer that has incorporated into it a higher level of control techniques and is mostly used in transmission station. An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustment of line voltages to either change its value or keep it constant.
It functions as step down transformer and it keeps the output voltage i.e. secondary voltage constant by the use of tap-changer feature of the auto-transformer.
It is a power transformer used in electrical power stations
USAGES OF AUTO-TRANSFORMER
The usage of autotransformer in Transmission Company of Nigeria is to step up or step down the HVAC to a certain values and maintain a constant output voltage i.e. secondary voltage by tap-changing the winding inside the transformer using the Tap-Changer built with the transformer for the ability to change the position of the secondary winding to maintain a constant output secondary voltages.
Auto-transformers are frequently used in power applications to interconnect systems operating at different voltage classes, for example 330kV to 132kV for transmission.
On long rural power distribution lines, special autotransformers with automatic tap-changing equipment are inserted as voltage regulators, so that customers at the far end of the line receive the same average voltage as those closer to the source. The variable ratio of the autotransformer compensates for the voltage drop along the line.

THE 105MVA TRANSFORMER OF RATING 10/330kV AT OLORUNSOGO PHASE 1
THE WAVE TRAPS
Wave trap is an electrical equipment used on the outgoing or incoming line into a Station, as its name indicates that it is used to trap frequency waves.
FUNCTIONS OF WAVE TRAPS
The carrier energy on the transmission line must be directed toward the remote line terminal and not toward the station bus and it must be isolated from bus impedance variations. This task is performed by the line trap.
A parallel resonant circuit has high impedance at its tuned frequency, and it then causes most of the carrier energy to flow toward the remote line terminal. The coil of the line trap provides a low impedance path for the flow of the power frequency energy. Since, the power flow is rather large at times, the coil used in a line trap must be large in terms of the size. Hence, a line trap unit/Wave trap is inserted between bus bar and connection of coupling capacitor to the line. It is a parallel tuned circuit comprising of inductance (L) and capacitance (C). It has low impedance (less than 0.1Ω) for power frequency (50 Hz) and high impedance to carrier frequency. This unit prevents the high frequency carrier signal from entering the neighbouring line.

WAVE TRAPS
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Instrument transformers are primary used to provide isolation between the main primary circuit and the secondary control and measuring devices. This isolation is achieved by magnetically coupling the two circuits. In addition to isolation, levels in magnitude are reduced to safer levels.
Instrument transformer are divided into two categories;
(i) Voltage Transformers (VT), VTs have a successor called Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVT), and (ii) Current Transformer (CT).
The primary winding of VT is connected in parallel with monitoring circuit, while the primary winding of the CT is connected in series with monitoring circuit.
FUNCTIONS OF AN INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

1. To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to easy to handle for relays and instruments.
2. To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage system.
3. To provide possibilities of standardizing the instruments and relays to a few rated currents and voltages
   USAGES OF VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (VT) AND CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (CVT)
   1. The secondary windings proportionally transform the primary levels to typical values of 110V phase to phase.
   2. The secondary voltage can be used in switchgear compartments, where it may be used to drive motors that open and close circuit breakers.
   3. The secondary voltage can be used in voltage regulators, where it can power a tap-changing drive motor of the Power Autotransformer above.
   4. It used for protections of both the equipment in the station and personnel.
   5. The secondary voltage is used for metering and operating protection relays such as Over Voltage protection, Under Voltage protection, Over frequency protection, Under frequency protection, Distance Protection, Transformer Differential protection et cetera.
   6. The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CTVs in combination with wave traps are used for filtering high-frequency communication signals from power frequency. This forms a carrier communication network throughout the transmission network.

CT at Olorunsogo 330kV. VT at Papalanto 132kV T.S. The Line CT at OTA T.S.
USAGES OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)
A current transformer can be used in:
To transforms the current on the line to that which is suitable for the meters and relays to function.
Metering of power to track energy use.
Monitoring of current flow through a circuit. This can be used to monitor the amount of current drawing by are line and the maximum allow current can be set on relay to trip on over current protection.
Relay of power through an energy grid.
Control of the state of circuit (open or closed) in a ground fault circuit interrupter.
Protection of instruments and appliances connected to AC power supplies as well the personnel working at TCN.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually as well as automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. As the modern power system deals with huge currents, the special attention should be given during designing of circuit breaker to safe interruption of arc produced during the operation of circuit breaker.
There are four type of circuit breaker namely; Air Circuit Breaker (ACB), Oil Circuit Breaker(OCB), SF6 Circuit Breaker and Vacuum Circuit Breaker. They types that is employed at TCN Papalanto, and its substations are Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB) and Spring Charging Circuit Breaker by operating mechanism.
FUNCTIONS OF CIRCUIT BREAKER
The main functions of circuit breakers are;
Sense the current flowing in the circuit
Measure the current flowing in the circuit
Compare the measured current level to its pre-set trip point
Act within a predetermined time period by opening the circuit as quickly as possible to limit the amount of energy that is allowed to flow after the trip point has been reached.
USAGES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
This equipment is used to make or break a circuit or segment of it, for the purpose of preventing Electrical Energy from getting to certain segments of the transmission and/or station. The circuit breaker can operate under normal (when it is operated deliberately) and abnormal conditions (when its contacts open on discovery of a fault within its jurisdiction). Its contacts are embedded in a medium which function as insulation and arc quenching during operation. Its contacts are not visible to the human eyes; however it could have an indicator telling whether the circuit breaker is opened or closed. The medium could be air, oil, gas (Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 gas is widely used), vacuum (absence of oxygen eliminates combustion). The advantages of Gas Circuit Breakers (GCB) over the Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB) are as follows;
Oil is combustible and could cause fire outbreak if arcing current is very high.
Carbonization of the oil takes place when the contacts are made or broken due to arcing.
When the contacts are made or broken, the oil gradually reduces in insulation strength and may result in breakdown, or must be changed regularly.
The gases used in the GCB are usually more efficient than using the OCB.
The GCB provides neater working environment around the breaker than the OCB.

THE HYDRAULIC OIL AND SPRING CHARGING CIRCUIT BREAKERS BY OPERATION
INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTER (MEGGA)

Insulation resistance quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment condition i.e. temperature, humidity, moisture & dust particles. It also get impacted negatively due to the presence of electrical & mechanical stress, so its become very necessary to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal or electrical shock.
USAGE OF MEGGA
A Megohmmeter usually is equipped with three terminals. The “LINE” (or “L”) terminal is the so-called “hot” terminal and is connected to the conductor whose insulation resistance you are measuring. The tests are performed with the circuit de-energized.
The “EARTH” (or “E”) terminal is connected to the other side of the insulation, the ground conductor.
The “GUARD” (or “G”) terminal provides a return circuit that bypasses the meter. For example, if you are measuring a circuit having a current that you do not want to include, you connect that part of the circuit to the “GUARD” terminal.

THE INSULATION RESISTANCE TESTER (MEGGA)
LEAKAGE CURRENT TESTER (CLAMP ON)
In any electrical installation, some current will flow through the protective ground conductor to ground. This is usually called leakage current. Leakage current most commonly flows in the insulation surrounding conductors and in the filters protecting electronic equipment around the he or office. So what’s the problem? On circuits protected by GFCIs (Ground Fault Current Interrupters) e.g. Circuit Breaker, leakage current can cause unnecessary and intermittent tripping. In extreme cases, it can cause a rise in voltage on accessible conductive parts.
USAGE OF LEAKAGE CURRENT TESTER
The Clamp-on is use in TCN to detect leakage current in secondary terminal of a CT while performing maintenance and detecting the start of the windings and insulation of the CT. The Clamp-on is clamp on the shorted secondary terminals of the CT while a known current has been injected to the primary side of the CT to test.

EARTHING TRANSFORMER AND EARTH REACTORS
The general purpose of earthing system is to protect life and property in the event of 50/60 Hz faults (short-circuit) and transient phenomena (lightning, switching operations).

FUNCTIONS AND USAGES OF EARTHING TRANSFORMER
This is used as earthing for the auto transformer and likewise as auxiliary supply for station. The earthing transformer serves as the neutral for the secondary of the transformer as step down of the 33KV at the tertiary to 415V, which is used for station auxiliary supply.
For cases where there is no neutral point available for Neutral Earthing (e.g. for a delta windings), an earthing transformer may be used to provide a return path for single phase faults currents.
In such cases the impedance of the earthing transformer may be sufficient to act as effective Earth impedance. Additional impedance can be added in series if required. A special ‘zig-zag’ transformer is sometimes used for earthing delta windings to provide a low zero-sequence impedance and high positive and negative sequence impedance to fault currents.
In a three phase delta connected AC system, an artificial neutral grounding system may be used. Although no phase conductor is directly connected to ground, a specially constructed transformer (a “zigzag” transformer) blocks the power frequency current from flowing to Earth, but allows any leakage or transient current to flow to ground.

BUS ISOLATORS AND LINE ISOLATOR
Isolators are a mechanical switching device used to disconnect some portion of the circuit. It is basically operated when the load is already cut off. Like circuit breaker, Isolator is also used in making and breaking the circuit, but there is major difference that is, Circuit Breaker is on Load device and isolator is operated when the load is off or disconnected

  132kV ISOLATOR.           THE 330kV BUS ISOLATOR.    THE 330kV LINE ISOLATOR

FUNCTIONS AND USAGE OF AN ISOLATOR
i. Isolators are used to open a circuit under no load.
ii. It is a manually operated mechanical switch which separates a part of the electrical power.
iii. Isolators are generally used on both ends of the breaker in order that repair or replacement of circuit breaker can be done without and danger.
iv. Isolators connected on any line or circuit can be electrically or manually operated for either emergency or maintenance.

RELAYS
Relay is an automatic protective device designed to trip a circuit breaker when a fault is detected. The protective relays were electromagnetic devices, relying on coils operating on moving parts to provide detection of abnormal operating conditions such as over-current, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over-frequency, and under-frequency.
Some Relays used in Sub-Station
i. Over Current Relay
ii. Over Voltage Relay
iii. Differential Relay
iv. Restricted Earth Fault Relay
v. Buchholz Relay.
.

FUNCTIONS OF A RELAY
It protects the transmission station against the following:
I. Itprotects against over current. The relays trip when a current rises above a set point which can be caused by either the load or the supply such as a sudden increase in load due to faulty.
ii. It function as a protective device when there is an over voltage. That is, relays trip when a voltage rises above a set point.
iii. It provides protection against earth fault. That is, relays detect any undesired current path from a point of differing potential to ground.
SECONDARY INJECTOR
It is a method of connecting a secondary injection test set to a trip unit (trip device, over current module, protection device, OCR, ETU etc.) on a circuit breaker, VT and CT, and injecting a simulated current to prove it works at different levels.

Secondary current Injection
FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY INJECTION
I. Primary and secondary current injection tests are normally conducted to check the operation of breaker and their protective relays/devices.
ii. The protective devices installed vary from circuit to circuit depending on the protection needs but typical relays/devices include overload, over current, reverse power, earth fault, and differential protection.

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION, PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. CONCLUSION
Transmission Company of Nigeria, Papalanto has given me the opportunity to have an experience in general, considering my level of involvement in some technical work and being able to witness the various application of the theoretical aspect of education which I am conversant with.

5.2. PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED DURING THE SIWES TRAINING
The problems of securing a place of attachment as some of the organizations dont want to accept SIWES students.
Finance department of the company did not make proper provision to pay SIWES student nor do draft any allowance, packages so as to relief the expenses for themonths programme.
Difficulty to understand some technical explanations as limited time is met for work done.
The biggest problem faced so far is getting to the office caused by traffic, money available at hand.
5.3. RECOMMENDATION FOR IMPROVEMENT OF THE SCHEME
Based on the experience and knowledge acquired at the course of the SIWES training, I hereby give the following recommendation base on my observations;
Institution should ensure that students are attached at relevant establishment for effective training, experience and exposure.
I recommend that substantial percent of the National budget should go into the development, improvement and sustenance of the power sector. Doing this would help improve Electricity production and in turn improve development and industrialization and subsequently, the income the country generates.
Also, Power Holding Company of Nigeria should put safety into great consideration; providing adequate safety wears for staff and ensuring their usage; putting that in mind.
I strongly suggest that SIWES student should be paid at monthly basis so as to ease the burden of transportation being the main problem faced.

Getting started in college can be a stressful time, even for students with limited obligations outside of the classroom. Today, many college students are also balancing the important demands of jobs, family obligations and other responsibilities as they pursue higher education.

Whether you are a student or your kid is about to go to college, there are common mistakes that undergraduate students make during their stay at the University. You should try your very best to avoid these errors.

1. NO PROPER GUIDE:
   Many University students in their first year live as if they were the first persons to get admitted. Immediately they see their names in the admission list, they feel that is all.
   They do not ask questions about the school, their department or course of study. They also fail to realize that it is what they have in their head that takes them ahead in school.
   University is not called UNI-STRESS for nothing. Many University students are facing challenges in 200L as a result of what they didn’t know in 100L. For you not to experience the challenges your senior students are facing, you must know what they didn’t know. You need to be properly guided on:
   °Resumption date
   °Clearance date
   °The required documents
   °Updates on course registration
   °Uniuyo school Fees payment deadline
   °How Uniabuja students should Jark
   °How exam questions are set
   °The university marking scheme
   °Tips to avoid missing scripts or Absent cases
   °Understanding Uni-stress.
2. SAYING YES TO DISTRACTIONS:
   I can tell you that distraction is one of the main things advertised in University . The distractions come in different dimensions. This makes it more difficult to identify. In University distractions come in form of:
   °Social activities
   °Pretty girls and handsome boys
   °Parasitic relationship
   °Campus fellowship.
   °Prioritize your time so as to accomplish the tasks that produce the best result for your academics. You cannot stop distractions from coming your way. However, you can choose not to be distracted.
3. SOCIAL LIFE:
   This mistake is not peculiar to University students. As a year one student, you want to make friends and associate with everyone you come across.
   You want to attend all the shows to show that you have arrived. Have you forgotten that who you follow determines what follows you? it does.
   University is a federal University and as a result, admits students from different tribes and background. This is a good reason why you should be selective in your choice of friends.
   Many students are still regretting
4. SKIPPING CLASSES:
   Who class help? this is the language of some University students. Most students are mostly guilty of this. The truth is that, classes may not help you in 100L.
   However, if you cultivate this habit in 100L, it will be very difficult for you to leave. This will in-turn harm you in the second year of study. If classes aren’t helping you, then what is helping you in school?
5. WAITING FOR THE EXAM TO BE CLOSE:
   University calendar is currently moving at the speed of sound. If you don’t prepare with the speed of light, the exam date will come as a flash to you.
   Many University sudents in their first year shake hands with procrastination, forgetting the fact that it has crippled their senior colleagues.
   University exams usually come as surprise to those who are not prepared; they are no jokes. Start preparing as early as possible.
6. PAYING MORE ATTENTION TO DRESSING:
   This is very common with Law students. They iron clothes for five hours daily and move round to impress the opposite sex.
   You are in school to study and develop yourself, not for a beauty show. Don’t carry shinning body with an empty brain. Invest in your personality.
7. GOING TO NIGHT CLASS IN GROUP:
   Hundred level University students are fond of going to night classes in group. They spend more time discussing and less time studying. This impacts their academic performance negatively. Do not follow the crowd to night class. Make every second of your stay in night class count.
8. KNOW IT ALL ATTITUDE:
   Many hundred level University students feel they know it all. They feel too proud to ask questions. What you do not know is senior to you.
   Humble yourself and learn. In fact, if you are too proud, you become too heavy for people to carry along. Keep calm and learn soft work.
9. NOT TAKING GST COURSES SERIOUS:
   Many University students do not take GST courses serious. For some, it is very easy so they can read it a day to the exam. For others, they hate GST with passion.
   The belief that general studies courses do not add to CGPA has been thoroughly debunked. The fact remains that GST adds to your GPA and should be taken very seriously. The rate at which 100L University students fail GST courses has assumed a gargantuan proportion.
   In conclusion, you can’t graduate from University without passing all your General studies courses. The earlier you understand this, the better for you.

10. PLEASING EVERYONE:
    University hundred level students find it difficult to say no. They feel, “If I refuse to go out with him, what will he say”. Do not let the fear of what people would say make you swim in the ocean of indecision.
    Know what you like and what you do not like. Also, know what works best for you. Be yourself.
    Dm me for more information about education

Best Ways To Form Notes During Lectures

1. Don’t Put Down Everything:
   Effective jotting doesn’t require you to put down everything the teacher or lecturer says. Write down only the important points .
   Don’t fight to make your jotter perfect. It’s just a rough note that aids you in remembering what was taught in class.
   Put down only the vital information and then go back to your hostel to form a comprehensive note. Remember, the shortest pen is better than the longest memory.
2. Note The Areas Of Emphasis:
   When the lecturer or teacher says, “take note of this’ it is required of you to quickly write it in your rough note and mark it as important. Ensure to research more on that area of concentration without further procrastinations.
   Most times, the teacher tells you likely
   examination topic or questions. Don’t joke with them.
   Also, take note of the part you are told not to focus on. This will make reading easier for you. Besides, nobody what to read what is not relevant to the issue. Your smartness matters a whole lot.
3. Know When To Write:
   To avoid distraction, know when to write and when not to write. Always pause to listen; there are some points that automatically sticks to your brain.
   Do not write while the lecturer is still talking or making important emphasis . Wait for him to pause, crack jokes or ask questions before you jot down the relevant points.
   With this, you will be able to focus on what the lecturer is teaching, and still form a good note without any form of distractions.
4. Use Abbreviations:
   For a faster jotting, you don’t need to write everything in full. Besides, nobody will mark the rough notes you formed in class. Use as many abbreviations and shorthand as you can remember.
5. Be Very Fast:
   The faster you are at taking notes, the better for you. You don’t have to spend all the whole day forming note. Write as fast as possible and listen as attentive as possible. Also, do not jot down what you already know.

2023 UTME Registration To Start January 14 – JAMB

The Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) has approved the commencement of the registration for the 2023 Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) from Saturday, 14th January to Tuesday, 14th February 2023.
This, however, does not include registration for Direct Entry (DE) applications as the DE registration would commence from Monday, February 20 to Thursday, April 20, 2022.
The Board also fixed Thursday, March 16, 2023, for the conduct of its optional mock-UTME.
Also, the Board, after considering its other commitments, fixed Saturday, April 29, 2023, for the conduct of the 2023 UTME, which is expected to end on Monday, May 12, 2023.
The Board advised all candidates, who desire to register for the 2023 UTME to immediately embark on the creation of their respective profiles (creation of profile code) ahead of the formal commencement of the registration exercise to avoid being caught up in any ensuing bottleneck.

JAMB update 2023.

• NIN is compulsory.
• Phone number is compulsory.
• You can repeat phone number(not used previously by another person to register JAMB) but advised to use a new one.
• Make sure the date of birth on your NIN slip is valid, no correction of date of birth after registration.
• Ensure to only use your personal phone number not from a stranger.
• Registration is only done at CBT centre.
• You can get pin from Banks, I will also sell the pins.
• Make sure you know your subjects combination for your prefer courses.

JAMB SUBJECT COMBINATION

JAMB Subject Combinations for Sciences:

Medicine and Surgery, Nursing Science, Pharmacy, Medical Laboratory science, Radiography, physiotherapy: Use of English, Biology, Physics and Chemistry.

Agricultural Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.

Computer Science: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and one of Biology, Chemistry, Agric Science, Economics and Geography.

Biochemistry: Use of English, Biology, Physics and Chemistry.

Physics: Use of English, Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry or Biology.

Mathematics: Use of English, Mathematics and any two of Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Biology and Agricultural Science.

Chemistry: Use of English, Chemistry and two of Physics, Biology and Mathematics.

Food, Science and Technology: Use of English, Chemistry, Mathematics / Physics and Agricultural Science.
Pharmacy: Use of English, Biology, Physics and Chemistry.

Fisheries: Use of English, Chemistry, Biology/ Agricultural Science and any other Science subject.

Geography: Use of English, Geography and any two of Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Agricultural Science.

Surveying an Geoinformatics: Use of English, Physics, Mathematics, and any of Chemistry, Geography, Art, Biology and Economics.

Statistics: Use of English, Mathematics and any two of Physics, chemistry, agricultural science and economics.

Building: Use of English, Physics, Mathematics, and any of Chemistry, Geography, Art, Biology and Economics.
Microbiology: Use of English, Biology, Chemistry and either Physics or Mathematics.

Botany: Use of English, Biology, Chemistry and any other Science subject.

Zoology: Use of English, Biology and any two of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics.

Agricultural Economics: English Language, Chemistry, Biology/ Agricultural Science and Mathematics.
sh, Chemistry, Biology/Agric Science and Physics/Mathematics.

Soil Science: English, Chemistry, Biology or Agricultural Science plus Mathematics or Physics.

Forestry: Use of English, Chemistry, Biology or Agriculture and Physics or Mathematics.

Civil Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.

Chemical Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.

Computer Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.

Electrical Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.

Electronic Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.
.
Mechanical Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.

Petroleum and Engineering: Use of English, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.

Architecture: English, Physics, Mathematics, and any of Chemistry, Geography, Art, Biology and Economics.

Quantity Surveying: Use of English, Physics, Mathematics, and any of Chemistry, Geography, Art, Biology and Economics.
Urban and Regional Planning: English, Mathematics, Geography and one of Economics, Physics, Chemistry.

Estate Management: Use of English, Mathematics, Economics and one other subject.
Anatomy: English, Mathematics, Biology and Chemistry or Physics.

JAMB Subject Combinations for Social Sciences:

Accountancy: Use of English, Mathematics, Economics and any other Social Science subject.

Business Administration: Use of English, Mathematics, Economics and any other Social Science subject.

Banking and Finance: Use of English, Mathematics, one Social Science subject and any other subject.

Economics: Use of English, Mathematics, Economics and any of Government, History, Geography, Literature in English, French and CRK/IRK.

Library Science: Use of English and Any three Arts or Social Science subjects.

Sociology: Use of English, Three Social Science or Arts subjects.

Political Science/ Pubic admin: Use of English, Government or History plus two other Social Science/ Arts subjects.

Philosophy: Use of English, Government and any other two subjects.

Psychology: Use of English, Any three subjects from Arts or Social Science.

Religious Studies: Use of English Language, CRK/IRS and any two other subjects.

Business Management: Use of English, Mathematics, Economics and one other subject.

Marketing: Use of English, Mathematics, Economics plus one other relevant Subject.

Insurance: English, Mathematics, Economics and one other subject.

JAMB Subject Combinations for Arts:

Fine and Applied Arts: Use of English Language, Fine Art and two other Arts subjects or Social Science subject.

Theatre Arts: Use of English, Lit. in English and two other relevant subjects.

Linguistics: English, Two relevant Arts subjects and any other subject.

French: English, French and any other two subjects from Arts and Social Sciences.

English Language: Use of English, Lit.-in-English, one other Arts subject and another Arts or Social Science subject.

Communicaton Arts: Use of English, Any three Arts and Social Science subjects.

Music: Use of English, Music, one other Arts subject plus any other subject.

Philosophy: Use of English, Any three subjects.
Religious Studies: English, CRK/IRS and any two other subjects.

Law: English, Literature, Economics/CRK, Government

UNIABUJA POST UTME UPDATE

UniAbuja Post UTME screening for the 2022/23 academic session is to commence next week Wednesday, December 28th and end Wednesday, January 25th (about a month).

The decision to start the exercise early came because of the 2023 Jamb examination.

Note that this call is for those who wrote Jamb examination this year.

Contact for registration requirements. Also, for your hitch-free, fast and reliable

DOCUMENTS AND THINGS NEEDED FOR UNIABUJA POST UTME REGISTRATION FORM*

1. Jamb Original Result
2. O’level Results
3. Birth Certificate/Declaration of Age
4. Certificate of Origin
5. Passport Photograph (either white or red background)
6. A valid email address and phone number
7. A valid O’level result scratch card.
8. Signature and Home Address
9. Other personal information
10. A’Level/JUPEB/IJMB/OND/NCE/HND and others (Direct Entry Only)

NOTE: All this above documents should be in colored form/printing

Requirements For the screening

1. Candidate must have relevant O’ level result(s) at NOT MORE THAN TWO SITTINGS, and score a minimum of 180 in 2022 Post UTME
2. Must have made the university of Abuja as their first choice or change from other institutions to the university of Abuja.
3. Candidate for Direct Entry (DE) Admission will be required to upload both their O’ level result and Higher qualifications, accordingly, to the University portal and register for the screening exercise.

Procedure for the 2022/2023 pre-admission screening

1. Visit https://portal.uniabuja.edu.ng and click on “click here to apply”;
2. Click undergraduate link on the left panel;
3. Enter your JAMB Registration Number and click on ” Get details”;
4. Complete the basic information page ( Please Note: enter only valid phone number and email address and click next);
5. Candidate are required to pay the sum of Two Thousand naira (2,000) only for the screening;
6. On the payment review page click on “Generate RRR” and this take you to another page;
7. Click on “Submit” and you will be redirected to another Remita payment page;
8. Enter credit or debit (ATM) card number and other details as appropriate and submit;
9. Enter “OTP code” sent to your phone number and click continue to complete your payment;
10. After successful payment, click on “Main Login” on the portal, enter your JAMB Registration Number and Surname as password;
11. Click on “Login to Dashboard” to complete your registration;
12. Ensure that you print completed registration form and payment receipt.
    Note it is mandatory for all students to upload their O’ level results to JAMB portal, otherwise they’ll not be considered for admission.

Differentiate between conduit and surface wiring by enumerating the tools and consumable materials used in each system

Define the following terms;

1. Earth continuity conductor: is a third conductor in line network or main distribution system with life and neutral that is bonded to the earth, which provides safety connection to any metal components not enclosed in the electrical circuit.
2. Earthing lead: means the final conductor by which the connection to earth electrode is made
3. Earth electrode: is a material used for earthing. Or is an electric wiring, a metal plate or any type of conductor buried under earth to ensure a good conductive path to the ground.
4. Consumer’s Earth Terminal: is a terminal or busbar which is part of the earthing material of an installation and which enables the electric connection of a number of conductor for earthing purposes.

State two advantages and disadvantages of ELCB
Merits

1. It protects animals and humans from electric shock
2. It’s cheap and efficient
   Demerit
3. Failure to respond at certain conditions
4. ELCB needs a sound earth connection for load protection.

Merits of steel conduit wiring systems

1. Offers exceptional free resistance
2. It deflect nails and screws and doesn’t stretch or tear
   Demerits of steel conduit wiring systems
3. It’s difficult to install
4. Risk of electric shock

List two advantages and disadvantages of trunking wiring system
Merits

1. Offers exceptional corrosion resistance or alternative are possible
2. Offers fire resistance or cheap and easy installation.
   Demerit
3. Expensive compare to other wiring system
4. Care and good workmanship are needed to ensure a successful installation

List 10 hazard that can occur when working on electrical installation in building

1. Overhead power lines
2. Damaged tool and equipment
3. Inadequate wiring and overload circuit
4. Improper grounding
5. Exposed electrical part
6. Damaged insulation
7. Wet condition
8. Loose fittings plug
9. Use of extension cords
10. Overloading circuit

List two major hazards listed above and describe any two ways by which hazards may be prevented

1. Loose fittings plug
   I. Make sure enough sockets are available
   II. Ensure there are no trailing cable that can cause people to trip or fall
   III. Switch off and unplug appliances before cleaning or adjusting.
2. Overhead power lines
   I. Use non conductive wood or fiber glass ladders.
   II. Know the safe working distance
   III. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE)

Please note that the University of Ibadan now uses a 4.0 Grading System.

•First class : 3.50—-4.00

•Second class(upper division) : 3.00 — 3.49

•Second class (lower division) : 2.00 — 2.99

•Third class : 1.00 — 1.99

Fail : 0.00 — 0.99

Marks Grade system

A — 70 and above (4)

B— 60-69% (3)

C— 50-59% (2)

D— 45-49% (1)

E — 40-44% (0)

How Students’ CGPAs Are Calculated

Consider the below assumption

The academic details of a student whose name is ‘XYZ’ is outlined below,

Course Offered — Course Unit — Score — Grade Point

Total course units — 46

CGPA = (course unit x grade point) + (course unit x grade point) + (course unit + grade point) ……… / total course unit

Using the results above,

CGPA = (3×4) + (3×3) + (3×4) + (4×4)+ (3×3) + (2×4) + (3×2) + (2×4) + (2×4) + (2×4) +(4×3) + (3×4) + (3×4) + (3×4) + (3×4) + (3×4) / 46

= 12+9+12+16+9+8+6+8+8+8+12+12+12+12+12+12 / 46

= 168 /46

= 3.65

CGPA = 3.65 (Out of 4.00)

The following are the details and information you need for Registration after successful payment of the prescribed fees.

• SURNAME:
• First Name:
• Middle Name:
• JAMB Registration number:
• State Of Origin:
• Local Government: Faculty Applying to: Department Applying to:

• Gender:
• Marital status:
• Date of birth:
• Country:
• Permanent home address:
• Valid email address: Phone number:
• Are you Physically challenged:
• Have you matriculated in UI? :

• Next of kin name:
• Next of kin address: Next of kin phone number:
• Next of kin email address:

Please note, use a valid email address and phone number.

It’s not necessary to use the same email address and phone number you used for JAMB Registration, especially if you don’t have access to it any longer.

Follow the instructions on the portal carefully. Any mistake can cost you your admission. No one is responsible for it.

If you can not handle the registration by yourself, kindly go to a Cafe.

After successful payment and Registration, kindly print out and keep your receipts and evidence of completion of Registration. Take note of your username and password.

You’ll be required to visit the admission portal after two weeks of Registration in order to print out your bio data.

State lenz’s law and faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

State three (3) factors in which the force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field depends
I. Strength of magnetic field
II. Strength of electric conductor
III. Length of conductor

With the aid of suitable diagram, describe the magnetic field around a solenoid

Solenoid Is the number of a turns of wire wound in the same direction. All the turns in a solenoid are in the same direction so that they can assist one another passing a magnetic field. For instance if a rod of iron is inserted inside the solenoid, only the magnetic field becomes intensified.
The magnetic field inside a solenoid is proportional to both the current and the number of turns per unit length. There is no dependence on the diameter of the solenoid and the field strength does not depend on the position inside the solenoid i.e the field inside is constant.

1. A conductor of active length 0.3m moves in a magnetic field at a linear velocity of 500m/s. If the magnetic flux density is 0.05T, calculate the average value of the induced e.m.f, if the direction of movement of the conductor is perpendicular to the field.
   The average value of the induced e.m.f = magnetic flux density × length × velocity
   Therefore e.m.f, E = BLV
   B = 0.05T, L = 0.3m, velocity= 500m/s
   0.3×0.05×500 = 7.5volts

2. A coil of 1000 turns and length 0.2m carries a current of 5A. If the cross sectional area of the magnetic circuit is proportional to the flux 1.0cm² and the flux produced by the coil is 0.15mWb. Calculate the permeability of the magnetic material.
   L = 0.2m, N = 1000 turns, I = 5A, A = 1.0cm² = 0.01m², ∅ = 0.15mWb
   Length= L, number of turns= N, current= I, area = A, flux = 0.15×10–³Wb
   ∅ = BA; B = ∅/A; B = 0.00015/0.01
   Flux density, B = 0.015wb/m²
   Magnetic field=H
   H = IN/L
   (5 × 1000) ÷ 0.2 = 25,000A/m
   Calculate the permeability of the magnetic material
   Permeability of the magnetic material = flux density/ magnetic field
   B/H = 0.015/25000
   6 × 10–⁷ Tesla/Ampere meter
   (III) Magnemotive force (M.M.F)
   This is the flux which drives magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit ( i.e the route or path which is followed by magnetic flux ) and correspond to electromagnetic force (e.m.f) in any electric circuit. It is usually measured in Ampere turns
   F = IN
   where F = Magnemotive force
   I = current
   N = number of turns

What is an automatic gain control?
It is a closed loop feedback regulating in an amplifier or chain of amplifiers, the purpose of which is to maintain a suitable signal amplitude at its output, despite variation of the signal amplitude at the output.
1. Explain the purpose of automatic gain control in radio receiver
The AGC circuit keeps the receiver’s output level from fluctuating too much by detecting the overall strength of the signal and automatically adjusting the gain of the receiver to maintain the output level within an acceptable range. It is used in most radio receiver to eaualize the average volume (loudness) of different radio stations due to differences in received signal strength.

2. Explain the purpose of carrier wave frequency
   The purpose of the carrier is usually either to transmit the information through space as an electromagnetic wave ( as in radio communication) or to allow several carriers at different frequency to share a common physical transmission medium by frequency division multiplexing ( as in a cable television system)

List three factors which affect the inductance of a inductor

1. The number of turns
2. The diameter of the coil
3. The length of the coil

What is an adjacent channel interference (ACI)? ACI may be caused by inadequate filtering, improper tuning and poor frequency control

Mention 4 ways by which adjacent channel interference can be reduced or eliminated.

1. Using modulation which shows the scheme have low out-of-bound radiation.
2. Carefully designing the bandpass filter at the receiver front
3. Assigning adjacent channel to different cells in order to keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as large as possible.
4. Accurate filtering and channel allocation ( maximizing channel intervals of the cell)
   Frequency deviation: it is used in FM radio to describe the difference between the minimum or maximum extent of a frequency modulated signal and the nominal center or carrier frequency.
   Side frequency: The frequency of oscillation that appears along with the principal carrier frequency is when the oscillation are modulated. They differ from the carrier frequency by a value that is either equal to or a multiple of the frequency of the modulating signal.
   Modulating index: It’s defined as a measure of the extent of modulation done on a carrier signal wave. In amplitude modulation, it can be defined as the ratio of the amplitude of a modulating signal to that of the amplitude of carrier signal.
   Side band: Is the portion of modulating carrier waves that is either above or below the basic (baseband) signal. The portion above baseband signal is the upper sideband while the portion below is the lower sideband.

DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR FINAL CLEARANCE

1. Photocopy of clearance form: Final clearance is a happy journey of fulfilment that you’ve successfully completed your school processes, but endeavor you’ve done all registration as necessary. The first thing you’ve to do after your ND/HND program is to endeavor that you pay clearance and notification of Results online. After you’ll take it to admission office, a clearance form will be handed over to you to go and fill with the appropriate signature and stamp.
   The things you should be expecting to be filled in the form by you include the signature of Hall warden, your practical lecturers, Director of VSESC, alumni, protocol officer, librarian and Dean if students affairs. But don’t panic once you start you’ll see some of your colleagues that have done theirs successfully.
   Once you’re done submitting this form to each respective personnel allocated to sign you can photocopy this form along with the other three listed below for submission before going to Exams and Record.
2. Photocopy of VSESC final clearance form: This receipt is meant for all EED payment you made from ND1 to ND2
3. Photocopy of Alumni Clearance form: A form will be given to you to fill appropriately, once you’re done with the clearance form.
4. Photocopy of school or departmental ID card: This is self explanatory, you’ll have to do photocopy of either your school ID card or departmental ID card
5. Summits to exams and record: This is very essential if you want to see your results ( either NOR or certificate)

Disclaimer : Submission of clearance form is between 12am to 3am

To know more about the. School check out Polytechnic of Ibadan, admission requirements

APPLICATION FOR ADMISSION INTO PROGRAMME FOR THE 2021/2022 SESSION

PROCEDURE FOR FULL TIME ND ADMISSION REGISTRATION

1. You must have uploaded on CAPS the results that qualified you for the programmes you applied for
2. You must have been ADMITTED by jamb, accepted the admission and print out the following documents
   A. JAMB Result Slip
   B. JAMB Admission letter
   C. You must also print out The Polytechnic, Ibadan Admission Slip

PROCEDURE TO PAY ACCEPTANCE FEE AND PRINTING OFFER OF ADMISSION SLIP

1. Login to The Polytechnic, Ibadan application portal
2. Click on the admission status
3. Once you have been admitted, click on continue registration.
4. Step number 3 will take you to the student portal
5. Once you’re in the student portal, you’re expected to create a new account by clicking on “New Registration? begin here”
6. Input your form number and click on proceed to e-clearance.
7. Input your details as requested and create the account.
8. To access your newly created Account, login to (tpiportal.polyibadan.edu.ng/portal)
9. Input your form number and new password
10. To pay your acceptance fee, click on fee payment and select acceptance fee.
11. Once payment is made, ensure to also print out your offer of provisional admission slip by clicking on admission slip on the dashboard.

PROCEDURE FOR REGISTRATION

1. Visit the registration portal at tpiportal.polyibadan.edu.ng/portal/
2. Enter your form number and log in your new password created on the student portal.
3. Click on e-clearance and upload the following documents.
   A. Ordinary Level Result (WAEC, NECO or NABTEB) with valid result token.
   B. Letter of Admission from the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board.
   C. Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) Result Slip as issued by the Joint Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB)
   D. Notification of Results/ND certificate (for HND student)

PROCEDURE FOR SCHOOL REGISTRATION PROCESS

Please find below a step by step guide to follow during your registration

• Pay your acceptance fee
• Proceed to e-clearance to upload your documents
• Once cleared pay all your fees
• Once cleared proceed to Faculty for faculty registration
• Proceed to your various Departments for Departmental registration
• Health Medical Registration ( once you’ve done this and fully cleared you’ll be given a yellow file that will make you eligible to come and receive free treatment and drugs)

REQUIREMENTS FOR E-CLEARANCE ( ND FULL-TIME AND DPP)

• Ordinary Level Result (WAEC, NECO or NABTEB) with valid result token.
• Letter of Admission from the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board ( Full Time only)
• Part-time application form filled at the JAMB office ( DPP students only)
• Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) Result Slip as issued by the Joint Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB)
• One (1) reference letter attesting to your good character from a reputable individual ( which can be a lawyer, doctor, jurist, clerk/imam e.tc)
• Your birth certificate or sworn affidavit of declaration of age
• One (1) passport photograph

NOTE: You’re strongly advise to carry out all online payment and online Registration at the following accredited Business centers. To know more about the school admission visit http://admission.polyibadan.edu.ng/
a) ICT center, beside WEMA bank at North campus
b) Library
c) VSESC office located after admission office
d) Micro-Finance Bank

Requirements and Subjects Combinations for Communication And Language Arts in University of Ibadan. (As copied from the official website of the school).

COMMUNICATION & LANGUAGE ARTS is believed to be equivalent to MASS COMMUNICATION in other institutions.

DIRECT ENTRY REQUIREMENTS

2 ‘A’ level passes to include Literature in English and one other Arts or Social Science subjects.

UTME REQUIREMENTS

English Language, Literature in English and any other from Arts, Social Sciences or Science [Please note that Government and Economics are not Arts subjects]

O’LEVEL REQUIREMENTS

5 ‘O’ Level Credits at one sitting or 6 ‘O’ Level Credits at 2 sittings to include English Language, two Arts to include Lit-in-English and any other three or four subjects from Arts, Social Sciences or Science [Please note that Government and Economics are not Arts subjects]

SPECIAL REMARKS

IBADAN accepts: OND Mass Communication with an Upper Credit grade only. Note: Applicants must in addition, have passed Lit-in-English at ‘O’ Level to qualify for Direct Entry admission.

To check for more related post on unilag blog check this uniibadan requirements for all departments

Requirements for Pharmacy

Direct Entry Requirements

i) A/Level Passes in Chemistry, Biology, Physics or Mathematics plus UME requirements.
(ii) B.Sc degree in relevant fields.

UTME Requirements

English Language, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology.

O’level Requirements

5 O’ Level Credit Passes in English Language, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology at a single sitting.

Special Remarks

UI accepts 5 credit passes at one sitting in English Language, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics and Biology.

To know more about direct entry requirements visit https://www.ui.edu.ng/news/20202021-undergraduate-admission-requirements

Update for UNILAG screening

UNILAG EXTENDS SALE OF ADMISSION SCREENING FORM FOR 2022/2023 SESSION

The Management of Unilag has extended the sale of admission screening form for 2022/2023 academic session. The deadline for the closing date is now November 11, 2022.

Note: This is also because of those that recently did change of institution to UNILAG

1. Make sure you attend UNILAG screening Exam
2. Make sure you are 16 years of Age and above
3. Make sure you meet the requirements for both o level and jamb.
4. Make sure your o level is uploaded on jamb portal.
5. No exam, just online registration.
6. O level result and Jamb result will be used to determine ur aggregate.
7. Those who wanted to use Awaiting result, make sure your results is coming out this month or during the Admissions processing period.
8. Make sure you have scored 200 and above in jamb

To know more about this post visit UNILAG EXTENDS SALE OF POSTUTME

Requirements for Medical Laboratory Science.

Direct Entry Requirements;

i) 3 A level passes in Chemistry, Biology and one other science subject.

UTME Requirements:

English Language, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology

O’LEVEL REQUIREMENTS

5 O’ Level Credit Passes in English Language, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology

Special Remarks;

UI accepts HND with Upper Credit in related fields or equivalent professional qualifications. Two O/L sittings are not accepted.

Requirements for Civil Engineering.

DIRECT ENTRY REQUIREMENTS.

2 ‘A’ level passes in Physics and Mathematics plus UTME requirements.

UTME REQUIREMENTS

English Language, Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics.

O’LEVEL REQUIREMENTS

5 ‘O’ level subjects at one sitting or 6 ‘O’ level subjects at 2 sittings to include English Language, Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics with any ONE or TWO of the following subjects as the case may be; Biology, Agricultural Science, Further Mathematics, Technical Drawing, Economics, Geography, Metal Work and Wood Work.

SPECIAL REMARKS

1. OND/HND at upper credit level {65%} accepted to 200/300 levels respectively plus UME requirements.
2. Knowledge of Further Mathematics is an advantage for all Engineering courses.

To know more about direct entry requirements visit https://www.ui.edu.ng/news/20202021-undergraduate-admission-requirements

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA

The management of the University of Abuja (UNIABUJA), has released the programmes of events for the 2022/2023 Sandwich contact.

To know more about university of Abuja Academic Calendar visit UNIAbuja Academic Calendar

Kindly note that FUTA does not release cut off marks yearly. You can’t get the cut off marks unless it leaks. The last cut off mark that leaked is that of 2017 and it is what we will use as a guide. As of 2017, the following are the departmental cut off marks.

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY (SAAT)

1. Agricultural Extension and Communication (AEC)-47.5
2. Animal Production and Health(APH)–55.37
3. Agricultural Resources and Economics(ARE)–47.5
4. Crop and Soil Protection (CSP) -47.5
5. Ecotourism and Wildlife Management(EWM)-47.5
6. Fisheries and Aquaculture Technology(FAT)-47.5
7. Food Science and Technology(FST)-58.12
8. Forestry and Wood Technology(FWT)- 47.5

SCHOOL OF EARTH AND MINERAL SCIENCES (SEMS)

1. Applied Geophysics (AGP)–47.5
2. Applied Geology (AGY)–47.5
3. Marine Science and Technology(MST)-47.5
4. Metrology Sciences (MCS)–47.5
5. Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics(RSG)-47.5

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY (SET)

1. Architecture (ARC)—-72.87
2. Building Technology (BDG)-56.62
3. Estate Management (ESM)-47.5
4. Industrial Design(IDD)-53.25
5. Quantity Surveying (QSV)-57
6. Surveying (SVG)-64.25
7. Urban and Regional Planning (URP).-52.87

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY (SEET)

1. Agricultural and Environmental Engineering (AGE)-55.12
2. Computer Engineering (CPE)-69.62
3. Civil and Environmental Engineering
   (CVE)-71.87
4. Electronics and Electrical Engineering
   (EEE)-74.37
5. Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-49.75
6. Industrial and Production Engineering
   (IPE)-47.5
7. Mechanical Engineering (MEE)-73.75
8. Metallurgical and Materials Engineering(MME)-54.87

Recently, two courses were just accredited and added to Engineering and they are Mechatronics Engineering and; Chemical Engineering

SCHOOL OF LIFE SCIENCES (SLS)

1. Biochemistry (BCH)-63.37
2. Biology (BIO)-47.5
3. Biotechnology (BTH)-47.5
4. Microbiology (MCB)-63

SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES (SPS)

1. Chemistry (CHE)-47.5
2. Mathematical Sciences (MTS)-59
3. Physics(PHY)-47.5
4. Statistics (STA)-47.5

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING (SOC)

1. Computer Science (CSC)–69
2. Information Technology (IFT)-63.75
3. Information Systems (IFS)-63.75
4. Cyber Security (CSY)–63.75
5. Software Engineering (SEN)-63.75

COLLEGE OF MEDICINE MBBS

Medicine and Surgery was accredited last year and that’s the maiden set. The cut off point was 84.45. The highest in Nigeria. Other departments in the college of Medicine are in the SCHOOL OF BASIC MEDICINE

1. Human Anatomy (ANA)-59.5
2. Biomedical Technology (BMT).57.25
3. Human Physiology (PHS)- 47.5

HOW TO CALCULATE AGGREGATE

Aggregate = Jamb score/8 + post UTME Score/2

Assuming Fola had 300 in Jamb and 80% in post UTME. Fola’s aggregate = (300/8)+(80/2)
37.5+40 =77.5%

To know more about this post visit this website teezbite.com.ng Also check FUTA website https://www.futa.edu.ng/

SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

What is SPEED in physics

Imagine you’re on your way to school and someone ask you what is SPEED, what will you say?
In a lame man language speed is the number of distance you covered per time taken to cover the distance
IN PHYSICS; SPEED is defined as the rate of change of distance per time
Average speed = distance / time = change in distance / change in time = s/t
D2 – D1/ t2 – t1 = final distance – initial distance/ final time – initial time = s/t
The S.I unit for speed is m/s

Example 1

A student cover a distance of 5km in 30 minutes. Calculate the average speed?
Average speed = distance/time = 5 × 1000/ 30 × 60
4.17m/s ( 4.17 meter per seconds)

Example 2

A driver traveling at a speed of 245km/hr received a text message on his mobile phone. How far is he, in kilometers, 30s later from when he received the text?
Speed = 245km/hr, time,t = 20s, ( 30s = 30/3600hr). Distance, s = ?
Distance = speed × time = 245km/hr × 30hr/3600 ( hr will cancel out)
245/120 = 2.04km

What is velocity?

Velocity is the same thing as speed only that it moves in a specific directions, it is a vector quantity. Velocity can be defined as the rate of change of distance moved with time in a specific direction. It is also defined as the rate of change of displacement with time. Displacement means distance traveled in a specific direction.
Velocity = displacement/time = change in displacement/change in time
=( Final displacement – initial displacement) / (final time – initial time)
However speed is used in place of velocity and vice versa. The S.I unit for velocity is m/s.

To see more related post visit https://www.toppr.com/guides/quantitative-aptitude/averages/average-speed/

For Admitted students, be reminded that physical screening for department is compulsory, despite generating your matriculation number and paying school fees, your department must approve you as their students. I therefore write to inform you, that all screening officers across all departments will be on seat from Tuesday 25th of October, to attend to those that are not yet screened prior to ASUU strike.

This is not a disclaimer, to clear the air, Students should submit Form 01 to faculty on Monday, October 24th. After filling the form wait there and get it stamped, then bring it for submission on Tuesday for screening.

NOTE: UNI ABUJA do not write Post UTME Exam rather they do screening for students. If any students failed to be screened by the school administrative officers that students will forfeit his/her admission for that year despite being admitted.

DOCUMENTS AND THINGS NEEDED FOR UNIABUJA POST UTME REGISTRATION FORM

1. Jamb Original Result
2. O’level Results
3. Birth Certificate/Declaration of Age
4. Certificate of Origin
5. Passport Photograph (either white or red background)
6. A valid email address and phone number
7. A valid O’level result scratch card.
8. Signature and Home Address
9. Other personal information
10. A’Level/JUPEB/IJMB/OND/NCE/HND and others (Direct Entry Only)

NOTE: UniAbuja Post UTME screening for the 2022/23 academic session is to commence next week Wednesday, Dec 28th and end Wednesday, January 25th (about a month). If you know you don’t have some of the aforementioned things, it’s high time you get them

Do direct entry students need original jamb results

Do university of Abuja write Post UTME

University of Abuja don’t write Post UTME, what they do is screening and the following documents that you need to be eligible to study in this great citadel have been listed above.

Do university of Abuja use Transcript too

To check out more of this post and UNIAbuja Facebook group page, where you can find more of this post visit UNIAbuja aspirants group

DOWNLOAD LAUTECH POST UTME PDF FOR FREE HERE!

Download free original Post UTME Past Questions and Answers for Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH), so as to enable you to prepare well for the upcoming Post UTME Screening Examination. Note that LAUTECH Post UTME Past Questions is totally free of charge.

The Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH), past questions and answers are available in a free downloadable PDF format. All you have to do is click on the subject of your choice to start downloading.

Download LAUTECH Post UTME question for free

For Your Post UTME, we have LAUTECH Post UTME Past Questions for all departments available here. And you can also download as much as possible for free.

The benefits of LAUTECH Post UTME Past question and answer

Why you need Post UTME Past question and answer for Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH)

1. Sample of the questions LAUTECH has set for their students before
2. To verify if questions are been repeated or not
3. Nature of the exam: Helps to inform you if the exam is what you expected or not ( i.e if it’s hard or simple) for you to know how to tighten your belt for the upcoming Post UTME Screening exam
4. How many Questions stipulated time allowed for each Post UTME Exam
5. Marking scheme for the exam

Practically , studying with Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH) Post UTME Past question and answer helps increase speed and accuracy.

Eligibility for LAUTECH Post UTME 2022

• Candidates who chose Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH) as their 1st choice.
• Candidates who scored 200 and above in the last Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME).
• Candidates who possess a minimum of five(5) O’level credit passes in accordance with the University’s Entry Requirements.
• Candidates should be 17 years and above.

How to Apply for Post UTME Form

You can now download the Ladoke Akintola University of Technology (LAUTECH) post UTME past questions and answers (PDF) for free here. This page contains core subject combinations for LAUTECH post UTME. On this page is also the LAUTECH Post UTME subjects for candidates applying for Electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, mechatronics engineering, metallurgical engineering, mining engineering, Biochemistry, International Relations, Physiology, Accounting, Environmental and so on.

We are offering FREE post UTME past questions and answers to candidates? We understand that past questions are one of the most helpful tools available to prepare for examinations as they provide students with a practical insight on what to expect in the examinations.
Download LAUTECH Post UTME Past Questions and Answers For Free
NOTE: The LAUTECH Post-UTME Past-Questions and Answers are absolutely free.

The LAUTECH past questions and answers contain the following subjects: ( Click any of this subject to start downloading)

• Biology (Questions)
• Physics (Questions)
• English (Questions)
• Mathematics (Questions)
• Chemistry (Questions).
• Biology (Answers)
• Physics (Answers)
• English (Answers)
• Mathematics (Answers)
• Chemistry (Answers).

Necessary documents that will be required after LAUTECH Post UTME Screening exam

1. Court Affidavits: This is just a legal statement of good conduct and anti-cultism. Make sure you follow LAUTECH format, get it done in an high court, ensure it is signed, stamped and sealed.
2. Certificate of Origin: you’re to get this in the local government you filled during jamb registration compulsorily. If you can’t travelled down there,contact someone over there to get it done on your behalf and travel it to you. Liaison office documents isn’t welcomed.
3. Certificate of Birth: This can be gotten from your local government secretariat or general hospital ONLY.
4. Jamb Documents: You’re to generate RRR for both the original result and admission letter from jamb. Make sure you print them coloured.
5. LAUTECH Documents: post utme results and JAMB admission letter is a necessity during registration.
6. Attestation letter: A letter of good conduct from a reputable personality or organisation about you. To be addressed to the registrar.
7. O_level result and testimonial: Online print out is an error, make sure you get the original result from your school unless it’s not out officially then you can present statement of results. Some registration officer won’t accept statements of results. Leaving school testimonial is also required.

To visit a likely website as this visit https://recruitmentpastquestions.com.ng/lautech-post-utme-past-questions/

To download a likely past question visit LAUTECH post utme past questions and answers (up-to- date)
https://myschool.ng ›

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION 2016/2017 ACADEMY SESSION

COURSE TITLE: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION 11
COURSE CODE: EEC 216. CLASS:ND11
TIME ALLOWED: 2 HOURS.
INSTRUCTION: ANSWER QUESTION ONE AND ANY OTHER THREE
QUESTION AND ANSWER
QUESTION ONE

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

These are familiar piece of measuring equipment, as no Tv programme with a science content is complete without the display of instantaneous voltage values on an oscilloscope. It is an indispensable instrument in any laboratory where voltage form a simple basic instrument to the sophisticated/complex programmable instrument with digital readout, are written on the oscilloscope, only the principles and main features of these instruments are introduced here.

Block Diagram Of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Salient Features

1. Cathode Ray Tube[CRT]: It displays the quantity being measured.
2. Vertical Amplifier: It amplifies the signal waveform to be viewed.
3. Horizontal Amplifier: It is fed with a saw tooth voltage which is then applied to the x-plates.
4. Sweep Generators: This produces saw tooth voltage waveform used for horizontal deflection of the electron beam.
5. Trigger Circuit: This produces trigger pulses to start horizontal sweep.
6. High and low power supply.

CIRCUIT THEOREM EEC 222

A resistance of 40Ω, inductance of 0.4Hz and capacitance of 200µF are connected in series and are fed by 200v, 60Hz supply. Find;

1. Inductance Reactance, X_L
2. Capacitance Reactance, X_C
3. Magnitude of impedance, Z of the RLC Circuit
4. Magnitude of admittance, Y of the RLC circuit

SOLUTION

R = 40 Ω, L = O.4H, Capacitance = 200 × 10^-6F, Frequency = 60Hz, Voltage = 200v.

1.  Inductance Reactance, X_L

X_L  = WL = 2ΠF × L   ;      2 × 3.142 × 60 × 0.4

                                      =150.816 Ω

1. Capacitance Reactance, X_C

X_{C =} 1/W_c = 1/2ΠF × C _{= 13.33}Ω

1. Magnitude of impedance, Z of the RLC Circuit

Z =

Z =

Z =  = 143.187Ω

1. Magnitude of admittance, Y of the RLC circuit

Y =   _{=   =}  ^-3 Ω

1. Synchronous speed
2. Rotor speed when slip is 4%
3. Rotor frequency (5 marks)

SOLUTION
I) Synchronous speed = f/p = 50/2 = 25rev/sec
II) Rotor slip 4% = Ns – Nr/ Ns × 100.
4/100 = 25- Nr/25
100 = 2500 – 100 Nr
100Nr = 2400Nr
Nr = 24rev/sec [RPM]III) Rotor frequency = [Ns-Nr]P
= [25-24]2 = 2Hz

ENUMERATE 5 (FIVE) MAINTENANCE PROCESSES OF A BATTERY. (5 marks)

1. Batteries should be kept neat and clean to increase the life of the battery.
2. Dirt or other foreign materials should not be allowed to be accumulated in the cells, as it results into heavy discharge, on account of short circuit.
3. Connector should be coated with petroleum jelly or Vaseline to increase the life.
4. Alkaline batteries should not be installed in the room along with head acid battery to avoid short circuit.
5. Topping to the electrolyte level should be done with distilled water for proper reaction.
6. Terminal voltages should not be allowed below the minimum voltage specified by the manufacturer to increase the life of the battery efficiently.

MENTION THREE (3) CHANGES THAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGING OF BATTERY.
Answer

1. Positive plates become dark brown in colour and negative plates become grey.
2. Specific gravity of sulphuric acid increased from 1.8 to 2.3V
3. Voltage of each cell rises from 1.8 to 2.3V
4. Energy is absorbed in the cell
   ]5. Cell delivers gazing when the charging is completed
   LIST FOUR (4) ADVANTAGES OF A TRANSFORMER. (4 MARKS)
5. It’s one of the economical devices to transmit electrical power at high voltage and current. Can also be reduced at the designed voltages when required.
6. Its efficiency is very high in comparison to other electrical machine.
7. It can be operated very easily with little operation.
8. It maintenance cost is less, in comparison to other electrical machineries.
9. Number of tappings can be taken out from the secondary windings for voltage in only one transformer, which is used for transistor and low voltage appliances.
10. It can be taken from place to place very easily and it’s even used in house industry.
11. This can be designed for very high voltages, as there is much space to insulate winding.

MENTION SIX [6] STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLDERING TECHNIQUES

1. Tin the strands
2. Do not put the solder directly on the soldering iron.
3. Remove or withraw the solder or iron
4. Don’t move the parts until solder have been cooled or set.
5. Use only enough solder to flow over all surfaces (not too much or too little)
6. Use sufficiently heated up soldering iron bit, to heat the mechanical connection on side. While applying the solder From the other side
7. Strip the insulation or coating from the ends of the wire to be soldered ( peel the sheath to expose the strands)
8. Make a strong mechanical connection to ensure good electrical flow, after solder have been placed on it (twist the strands? [6 marks

At the end of this blog post, you should be able to understand how to;

1. solve problems involving resistivity and conductivity
2. deduce the equivalent resistance of series and parallel circuits
3. solve problems on series and parallel resistors

Example: A cylinder wire of 1.5m in length, 5.0mm in diameter, has a resistance of 3.5Ohms. Calculate the resistivity of the wire.

formula, R = 𝔓L/A
Solution
Length, L = 1.5m, 𝔓= resistivity = ?
Radius r = 5.0mm/2 = 2.5mm = 2.5×10⁻³m
Cross sectional area, A = πr² = 22/7 × (2.5×10⁻³)²m²
𝔓= RA/L = [3.5 × (22/7) × (2.5 ×10⁻³)² ] ÷ 0.5
𝔓= 45.833 × 10⁻⁶ ohm-meter

A wire of diameter 0.6mm, resistivity 1.1 × 10⁻⁶Ωm has resistance of 44Ω. Calculate the length of the wire.

A 30m conductor of cross sectional area 2mm has a resistance of 10Ω. Calculate the conductivity of the conductor.

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Equivalent Resistance of a series circuit

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Example: In the circuit below, determine the two voltages drops across R₁ and R₂?

When will ASUU Resume back to School?

I know you want to be informed on School Resumption, pertaining to both State and Federal government university, due to ASUU strike. In this article, we’ll show you all you need to know about School Resumption Date in Nigeria after ASUU strike and when Federal and State university are resuming(Latest information).

ASUU Strike Update Today!

When will ASUU Resume

Has ASUU Called Off Strike 2022

To check a related post that entails more of this visit nnn.ng/latest update on ASUU strike

What clearance form will I submit after admission?

The clearance file varies, depending on if you’re Full Time or Daily part-time students. We have;

1. Faculty file: The word Faculty comprises of many related department coming together to form a legalize division. For instance the faculty of engineering is called FENG in Polytechnic, Ibadan. Electrical, mechanical, mechatronics engineering and so on are under FENG, the same thing applies to other departments. You must endeavor to submit your file given to you by your coordinator to your respective department.
2. Departmental file: Each course have is own department. The school has Masscom department ( i.e Mass communication department) banking and finance department and so many more. Each students are expected to submit their clearance file to their respective department
3. DPP file (for DPP students only): This file should be submitted at the DPP office at North campus.

DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR ND CLEARANCE

1. Original Jamb Admission Letter
2. Original Jamb Result
3. PolyIbadan Admission Letter
4. PolyIbadan Application Slip
5. Original O’Level Result (NECO, WAEC, NABTEB)
6. O’Level Result checker (NECO, WAEC, NABTEB)
7. Letter of Recommendation from your community
8. Birth certificate or sworn affidavit of declaration of age
9. Passport (8)

In Polytechnic Ibadan, if you donot print your course form at the stipulated period of time given to you by the school administrator, your results for that semester will be delayed for a set-time. Mind you, you cannot print your course form without paying your school fees first.

If you’re in engineering department you’ll be given a yellow file. Each Department have their colour file. Some are blue, some purple and many more. If you want to graduate from Polytechnic Ibadan without no issues you must make sure you submit all this files before the deadline.

NOTE: The deadline for submitting the file will be communicated to you after 4 weeks of resumption. Please note that Polytechnic Ibadan is a no nonsense school, you must endeavor to submit all clearance file to your respective department.

At the end of this post, you should be able to;

State Joule’s law

Solve problems involving Electrical energy and power

Solve simple problems on Joule’s law
JOULE’S LAW
It state that, the amount of work required to maintain a current of I amperes through a resistance of R ohms, for time t seconds is I²R
E = IVt, joules
Or E = I²Rt, joules
Or E = V²t/R, joules
The above expression are also known as joules Law, which states that; Electrical Energy E is the energy required for V volts of electricity to make an electric current of I amperes to flow through a conductor of resistance R Ohms for a time T seconds.
Example

Calculate the work done in moving through a distance of 25m by a force of 20N which acts in the opposite direction of the motion of the body.

Solution
Since work done = F × d
D = 20 ×25 = 500j

A force of 40N is applied to a body to move it at a uniform velocity through a distance of 15m in 10seconds in the direction of the force. Calculate the power produced.

Workdone = force × distance
40 × 15 = 600J
Power = workdone/time taken
= 600/10 = 60W

An electric motor develops 5Kw at the speed of 100 rev/min. Calculate (a) the work done in 30min.

(I) in kilowatt hour (II) in mega joules (III) the torque in N-m

Solution
(I) Workdone in KWh = power (in kw) × time(in hours)
= 5 × 30/60 = 2.5KWh
work done in mega joules, but 1Kwh = 3.6MJ
Therefore w.d = 2.5 × 3.6 = 9MJ
Power= 2π × T × n
5000 = 2πT × 1000/60
T = 47.74N-m

An electric kettle takes 2KW at 240V. Calculate;

(a) the current and

(b) the resistance of the heating element

The power expanded in a certain resistor is given by I²R. If the power expended in the resistor is 175W when the current is 5A, calculate the power in the resistor when,

1. Both current and resistance are double.
2. Current is half and resistance double
3. When current is double and resistance half.
   Given that: P = 175W, I = 5A
   P = I²R, ⇒R = P/I²
   = 175/(5)² = 7Ω
   When both current and resistance are double, I = 2i; R = 2R
   Therefore, P = (2I)² × 2R = (2² × 5²) × (2 × 7)
   4 × 25 × 2 × 7 = 1400W
   Half current = ½; double resistance = 2R
   Therefore, P = (½I)² × 2R = (½² × 5²) × (2 × 7)
   0.25 × 25 × 2 × 7 = 87.5W
   Double current= 2i, half resistance = ½R
   Therefore, P = (2I)² × ½R = (2² × 5²) × (½ × 7)
   4 × 25 × ½ × 7 = 350W

ELECTRICAL TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW!

Accessories: A device other than current using equipment associated with such equipment or with the wiring of an installation.

Appliances: An item of current using equipment other than an illuminaries or an independent motor.

Cable coupler: A means enabling the connection of how cables are been connected. It consist of a connector and a plug.

Circuit: An assemble of electrical equipment supplied from the same origin and protected against over current by the circuit.

Circuit breaker: A mechanical switching device capable of making cutting and breaking current under specified abnormal circuit condition. For example the circuit breaker will trip-off if there’s short circuit.

Conductor: ( of a core or cable) the conducting portion consisting of a single wire or a group of wire in connect with each other for earthed concentric wiring. The metal in which electricity pass through in the cable sheet is called conductor.

Connector: The part of a cable coupler or an appliance coupler which is provided with female contact and is intended to be attached to the flexible cable connected to supplying.

Danger: Danger to health or danger to life or limb from shock, burn or injury from mechanical movement to a person due to electrical hazard.

Safety in the electrical engineering workshop

General safety

1. Observe all safety equipment.
2. Ensure that you withstand instruction before commencing work anything you don’t understand, make sure you ask your instructor.
3. Keep gangway sand access to fire appliances clear.
4. Learn how to give first aid treatment for electric shock.
5. Know where the nearest fire exit and what to do when there is an outbreak of fire.
6. Report all accident to supervisor
7. Never run, it is safer to walk
8. Never panic, it is safer to be calm
9. Never misuse anything provided for securing health of safety. Do not do anything likely to cause harm/danger to you or any other personnel in the workshop.
10. Never make false alarm in the workshop
11. When there is fire outbreak use the fire extinguisher to put off fire.
12. Stay away from restricted access zone in the workshop.
13. Never disobey your supervisor based on instruction given to you.

SAFETY TOOLS

1. Use the correct tool for the job.
2. Inspect boot regularly, don’t use them if defective.
3. Chisel or punches with butted or mushroom head should be redressed before use.
4. When using screw driver, never hold the job on your hand it should be placed on the table.
5. Tools with sharp point should never be carried unsheathed.
6. Hammer or mallet with loosed handles should be tightened before use.
7. When using a drive ensure that the meter being drilled is clamped.
8. Spanner with spray jaws should not be used. They usually slip as pressure is applied.
9. Always use a soldering iron stand. Never hang the soldering iron on equipment or lay it on a bench.

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION TOOLS, APPLICATION AND MAINTENANCE

Electrical tools are equipment engaged to perform operation on electrical materials in order to achieve elected oriented results.
There are two types of tools
I . Hand tools
II . Machine tool
I . Hand tools: They are tools that can be used to carry out various works in the workshop through human effort. Examples are pliers, hammers, screwdrivers, tester, saw blades e.t.c
II . Machine tools: They are irons that can be used to carry out works on machine in the workshop through human operation e.g reading machine, electrical drilling machine, stone grinders e.t.c

Examples of Hand tools and maintenance

1. Pliers (nose, side, cutter): iron be used for twisting cable, cutting cable and peeling of cable. Maintenance and care = it should not be used for hammering things. After use, keep it inside the tool box.
2. Hammer: This is used for hammering nails. Maintenance: After use keep it inside the tool box
3. Screwdriver: This is used for loosening or tightening screw of various sizes, it can be flat, star or both and we’ll insulated. Maintenance: it must be well insulated, keep it into the tool box after use.
4. File: This is used for smoothening metal. Maintenance: After use keep it inside the tool box
5. Hacksaw: This is used for cutting of tubes, pipes and metal. It must be insulated. Maintenance: After use keep it inside the tool box
6. Tap and die: This can be used to for cutting internal thickness. Maintenance: it should be well cleaned and return back to the box after use.
7. Soldering iron: it is used to join two pieces of wire together. Maintenance: Soldering bit should be cleaned immediately after use.
8. Vernier calliper: it is used to measure in the workshop. Maintenance: it should be returned back to its box after use.
9. Micrometer screw gauge: This is used for measuring the diameter of a single wire in the workshop. Maintenance: it should be well coiled and return back to the box after use
10. Blow lamp: This is used for melting the joint of lead or soldered joint between two wires.
11. Tester: This is used to test or checked if there is life connection in a socket of unknown node in wire connection.
12. Multimeter: This is used to check the current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, , inductance in wire connection.
13. Fuse element: a part of the fuse element is to melt when under abnormal condition e.g short circuit
14. Cable coupler: a means of enabling the connection of two flexible cable. It consist of a cable and plug.
15. Appliance: an item of current using equipment other than a luminaries or an independent motor.
16. Switch board: an assembly of switch gear with or without instruments but the term does not apply to a group of local switches in final circuit.
17. Socket outlet: a device provided with female contact, which is intended to be installed with the fixed wiring and intended to receive a plug.
18. Circuit breaker: a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking current under normal circuit condition and also of making for a specific time and breaking current under normal specific abnormal circuit condition such as short circuit.
19. Insulation: These are materials that do not allow the flow of electricity to pass through them.

ELECTRICAL CABLE

Cable is used in electrical circuit and consist of the following main parts.

mechanical protection ( outer part of the cable)
Insulator ( second layer of the cable)
Conductor ( third part that allow the free movement of electric current)

Electrical cable properly trimmed

1. Mechanical sheath (protection): This is provided to prevent damage to the electrical cable during installation and throughout it subsequent service.
2. Insulation: This part don’t allow the free passage of an electrical current. Examples are mica, rubber, paper (impregnated paper), abestors and so many more.

WIRE

Wire in a cable contain conductor only. That is the part without electrical metal sheath or insulation part. Wire is a conductor material that is used for electrical wiring, it is the one without any form of insulation inside a cable.

TYPES OF CABLE

. Tough rubber-sheathed (T.R.S)
2 . Flexible cable and cord
3 . Paper insulated lead-covered (P.I.L.C)
4 . Lead sheathed (V.R.I)
5 . Poly-vinyl-chloride insulated and sheathed (P.V.C)
6 . Mineral insulated

STRIPPING OF CABLE

The insulation and mechanical protection must be removed from the end of the cable to leave a suitable length of exposed conductor. On stripping a cable the following should be taken into consideration.
1 . The strands forming the core must not be cut or nicked, since this could results in a loss of conducting area or it could be a source of trouble as it may easily break completely at a later date.
2 . The insulation of the core must not be damaged when removing the outer covering. This particularly applied to most core cable such as P.V.C and T.R.S
3 . If any cable has an outer protection of cloth or tape such as lead sheath which usually has both, this must be removed to expose atleast half of inch of insulation.

CABLE TERMINATION

A . 13 Amps top plug
b . 13 Amps socket outlet

THEORY
Cable termination simply mean how cable stands are secured or joined into a terminal point. Cable termination could be done either by screwing it into a terminal or cable leg depending on the type of terminal available for termination.

CABLE JOINT

A joint is a place where two or more separate cables are brought together for the purpose of continuity. A good and reliable joint is achieved when two or more cables to be joined together are of the same materials e.g copper-to-copper or aluminum-to-aluminum.

Types of joint

1. Britannia joint: it is used in single overhead copper wire which are inconsiderable tension when in use
2. Scarf joint: it is suitable for all wires which are not required.
3. Straight twist joint
4. Tee twist joint
5. Married joint
6. Telescope joint
CONSTRUCTION OF BRITANNIA JOINT

PROCEDURE
1 . Strip and clean one end of each piece for 75mm.
2 . From the stripped end bend 6mm of each conductor at tight angle.
3 . Clamp the two conductor together with pliers so that the end are outwork.
4 . Tightly bind both conductor with 1.12mm² tune copper wire carrying the binding about 6mm
5 . Solder the whole length of the binding.
6 . Ask the workshop technician to check your work.

MARRIED JOINT

PROCEDURE
1 . Strip and clean one end each for 220mm.
2 . Twist strand of each piece for 35mm for each insulation.
3 . Untwist remainder of strands and straighten.
4 . Cut off center strands of each piece.
5 . Interspace the strands and bring the twisted portion together.
6 . Lightly bind the strands on the right-hand side round twist strand.
7 . Tightly bind the strands on the left-hand side round twisted strand against the leg of the cable.
8 . Untwist and straighten the strands on the right hand side then tightly bind them round twisted strand in the same direction as the left-hand strand.
9 . Cut off surplus strands and smooth over with pliers.
10 . Solder joint.
11 . Ask the workshop technician to check your work.

SCARF JOINT

PROCEDURE
1 . Strip and clean one end of each piece for 1.5mm.
2 . Finned and fitted together the two ends so as to have the same diameter as an uncut wire.
3 . Hold the two wires tightly.
4 . Wound with tuned copper binding wire over a distance of 2.5mm.
5 . The whole joint is then soldered.
6 . Ask the workshop technician to check your work.

TEE JOINT

1. Clean and strip the through piece for atleast 3.7mm in the center.
2. Clean and strip one end of the T-piece for atleast 220mm.
3. Twist strand through piece and first 6mm of T-piece.
4. Untwist remainder of T-piece strands and straighten.
5. Placing T-piece at right angle to center of the piece, tightly bind T-piece strands round the through piece against the lay of the cable one at a time, four strands round left-hand half through piece and three strands round right-hand.
6. Cut-off surplus and smoothen over with pliers.
7. Solder joined end.
8. Ask the workshop technician to check your work.

STRAIGHT TWIST JOINT

PROCEDURE

1. Strip clean and tin over a distance of 3mm.
2. Lay the wire together to about 2mm.
3. Twist tightly, pound the end to opposite direction. Each of the wire fitting closely up to the next.
4. Solder the joined end.
5. Ask the workshop technician to check your work.

TEE TWIST JOINT

• The wire is bated, cleaned and tinned for a distance of 2mm.
• Do not cut the wire.
• Tightly round the wire.
• Solder half of the joint to allow flexibility when insulating.
• Ask the workshop technician to check your work.

WIRING SYSTEM

This is responsible for powering specific element within a system that need electricity to work.
1. Surface wiring: This is a system of channel and boxes that let you put outlet switches or light fixtures anywhere you want, without the hassle of cutting into walls, fittings wire and pinching holes.
2. Conduit wiring: This is a tube used to protect and house electrical wiring in a building or structure. It may be made of metal, plastic, fibre or fitted clay. Most conduit are rigid but there are some flexible conduit too.

TYPES OF FLEXIBLE CABLE

1. Surface conduit wiring
2. Concealed conduit wiring
   1. SURFACE CONDUIT WIRING: This system is suitable for low and medium voltage wiring installation VIR or PVC. Cables are run in meter pipes known as conduit which provide good mechanical protection to the installation of cable and reduce the risk of fire. The cables are drawn through the conduit by means of steel known as ‘fishing wire’ conduit pipe are available in various sizes which varies from 12mm-15mm in long tuning of pipes. The junction box are provided at a sufficient distance to facilitate the drawing of wires.
   2. CONCEALED CONDUIT WIRING: The wiring is also called recessed wiring and coupled with all requirements or surface conduit wiring. In this system small channels are formed in the wall ceiling e.t.c when the building is under-construction, the conduit wiring are erected in those channels by strapples or saddles not more than (60cm) 2 inches. Inspection type conduit accessories like inspection type conduit, tee, elbow or junction boxes are fitted or mounted on the wall, at a specific distance during the installation of the conduit to facilitate drawing or removal of wire after the erection of the conduit pipe in the channel. They are closed and the wall are flushed off, of all electrical installation. Accessories are fixed on an insulating sheath which is fixed on cast iron boxes. This system requires good and continuous earthing and therefore it must be connected to the earth of the point entry of supply cables. The system is very costly and offers good mechanical protection. This system is generally used in industrial workshop, public building e.t.c The life of this system is approximately 40 years.

ADVANTAGES OF CONDUIT PIPE SYSTEM

• The mechanical protection for the insulation of the conductor is very good.
• The gives very good protection against fire due to short circuit.
• It provides protection against moisture in the earth.
• Damage cable can be easily replace in the building.
• It has a very neat and attractive appearance.

DISADVANTAGE OF CONDUIT PIPE SYSTEM

1. The initial cost is very high.
2. Danger of burns due to poor workmanship causes the insulation of the cable to damage.
3. In damp condition, the moisture condenses inside the conduit pipe and does reduce the insulation resistance which may cause a short circuit between the cable thread and enters bore where it is fixed to the box with the lock nut.

CONDUIT BUSHING

Conduit bushing are used when the rigid conduit is not threaded. It is either made of available thin air formed a short steel. The bushing serves double purpose. Firstly, it prevents the insulation on the sheath edge of the conduit when they are pulled. It helps in securing the rigid conduit to conduct boxes when o lock is placed on the inside of a box. There is another close type of bushing which is used during construction of a building.
Types of bushing is provided with a cap as shown in the diagram below. The cap prevent moisture from entering the conduit system during construction.

LOCK NUT

When the conduit enter a box, it is necessary that the lock nut should be screwed on the conduit connection to the rigid box and the electrician continue. The lockout are pushed ontop the sheet steel. The lockout are hexagonal or octagonal.

CONDUIT NIPPLES

The nipple serve the same purpose as the conduit bushing. Similar to the bushing it has a smooth inner surface and they are used for providing a coupling to the conduit box. The nipples are rarely provided because the system cost less.

WIRING SYSTEM

There are two types of wiring system;

1. Radial wiring system
2. Ring wiring system

1. RADIAL WIRING SYSTEM: In radial wiring system, wires are looped from the voltage sources to one socket and the other socket in the same like manner. If there is a cut along the wire, current stops to flow along the circuit, hence there is discontinuity in the flow of current in the circuit which is a major drawback of radial wiring system.
2. RING WIRING SYSTEM: In this circuit, distribution point are connected to the main supply in a continuous closed circuit to rewire your house, make sure you’re using the correct wire for each ring circuit such as light, socket, shower and cooker

Is The Polytechnic, Ibadan form out?

The Polytechnic, Ibadan announces application for admission into programmes for the 2022/2023 academic session on their official website. Application form for this year 2022/2023 programmes is out and Will be closed on Friday, 16th September, 2022. Interested candidate are to obtain the post UTME screening form on the existing institution portal at http://tpiportal.polyibadan.edu.ng/admissions the sum of two thousand naira only (#2,000).

Requirements
For full time interested candidate must have made the institution either First choice in the 2022/2023 UTME or opened to a change of institution to the Polytechnic, Ibadan.
Candidate for both Full Time and Daily Part Time Programmes must have obtained a UTME score of 150 and above. In addition, the DPP candidates must obtain a Part Time Application form from the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB).
Candidate for the National Diploma Programmes are also expected to obtain a Part Time Application form from JAMB.
FULL TIME form: The interested candidate must have made the institution First choice in the 2022 UTME with a minimum score of 150 exemption of courses like Mass communication, where students with 250 and above can be considered.

PART-TIME (CEC i.e continuing educational center): The interested candidate with relevant O’Level result can apply for part time form.

School fees for 2022/2023 admission Programmes (100%)

Download ibadan Poly POST UTME screening exams

The past question will increase your chances of gaining admission, when you score high. Hence, you need to start preparing for IBADANPOLY Post UTME screening, In like manner, you need to use IBADANPOLY post UTME past questions and answers.Poly Ibadan past Questions and answers 2022/2023 Free PDF download

That’s why we’ve provided you with a concise PDF for Polytechnic Ibadan post utme exams for HND for free

What advantage can the Post UTME past question offer

‣ Firstly, it enlightens you on the scope of the study

‣ Hence, you won’t be in the dark about questions to expect in the examination.

‣ Therefore, you won’t need support rather you’ll be confident in yourself

‣ In like manner, you won’t develop  fever as a result of not knowing where the questions will be coming from.

‣ Likewise, it equips you beforehand.

‣ Similarly, it guides you on how to answer questions that are tricky

Some Departments Available for post UTME screening at IBADANPOLY

However, we have compiled a list of the courses offered at Ibadan Polytechnic

‣ ACCOUNTANCY

‣ ACCOUNTANCY

‣ AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING/TECHNOLOGY

‣ AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

‣ ARCHITECTURAL TECHNOLOGY

‣ ARTS AND DESIGN

‣ BANKING AND FINANCE

‣ BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

‣ BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION & MANAGEMENT

‣ CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

‣ COMPUTER ENGINEERING

‣ COMPUTER SCIENCE

‣ ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

‣ ESTATE MANAGEMENT AND VALUATION

‣ FASHION DESIGN AND CLOTHING TECHNOLOGY

FOOD TECHNOLOGY

‣ GEOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY

‣ INSURANCE

‣ LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

‣ LOCAL GOVERNMENT STUDIES

‣ MARKETING

‣ MASS COMMUNICATION

‣ MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

‣ MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

‣ MUSIC TECHNOLOGY

‣ OFFICE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

‣ PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

‣ PURCHASING AND SUPPLY

‣ QUANTITY SURVEYING

‣ SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

‣ STATISTICS

‣ SURVEYING AND GEO-INFORMATICS

‣ URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Hence, the exam past questions will help you think fast and beyond your capacity. As a result, you won’t feel intimidated by any technical question because you were already prepared for it. Poly Ibadan past Questions and answers 2022/2023 Free PDF download

Poly Ibadan Admission List 2022/2023 is Out

Information reaching us has it that Admission List will be released in batches: 1st Batch, 2nd Batch list, 3rd Batch list and maybe 4th Batch.

How to check if your name is on the admission list for 2022/2023

• Firstly, you need to login to POLYIBADAN portal at http://admission.polyibadan.edu.ng/Access.
• Enter your Email Address and Password where required.
• Click on Login to access your Poly Ibadan admission status.

Once you have visited the portal, follow the steps outlined below to check your name on the admission List.

How To Check Your Admission Status On JAMB CAPS

1. Open your phone browser (Google Chrome is preferable).
2. Visit the https://jamb.gov.ng/Efacility.aspx
3. Enter to your Jamb profile with your username and password.
4. Scroll down then locate and click the ‘Check Admission Status‘ tab.
5. Select your Exam year and Enter your registration number in the required columns
6. Finally, click on ‘Check Admission Status‘ to access your POLYIBADAN admission status.

NOTE: Successfully admitted are required to either: Accept or Reject Admission Offer via the JAMB CAPS Portal.All admitted students are to note that Payment of Acceptance fee commences immediately.

Congratulations to successful candidates!

Poly Ibadan Acceptance Fee Payment Guidelines 2022/2023

All Candidates offered provisional admission into the vairous Polytechnic Ibadan (POLYIBADAN) full-time National Diploma Programmes for 2022/2023 academic session are hereby informed to commence payment of acceptance fee immediately.

All successfully admitted candidates are to proceed with the payment of Acceptance fee of Thirty Two thousand Five hundred Naira (N32,500) with bank charge of N300 (three hundred naira).

Kindly Login into http://admission.polyibadan.edu.ng/Access and click on ‘Make Acceptance Payment’.

Candidates are required to scan and upload their documents at eclearance.polyibadan.edu.ng.

The following documents will be required for registration at your Faculty:

1. The Polytechnic Ibadan Application Slip, Admission Slip, Acceptance and Hostel Fee Receipt.
2. Passport (Blue Background).
3. O’ level Results.
4. Result scratch card (NECO : WAEC: NABTEB).
5. JAMB Admission Letter (ND ONLY).
6. National Diploma Certificate (HND ONLY).
7. I.T Letter (HND Only).
8. Letter of Recommendation from a reputable individual in the society.

N.B. Late registration attracts a penalty fee of Five Thousand Naira (#5,000)

The deadline for payment of the Polytechnic Ibadan acceptance fee is is TWO WEEKS FROM ADMISSION OFFER.

If you have questions regarding Ibadan Poly Admission List 2022 kindly 

How to Prepare for the Poly Ibadan Admission Screening

Let’s see how the activities will go for the polytechnic admission exercise.

1. The management will announce the sales of form and requires all aspirants to obtain it online and fill form thereon.
2. Applicants must have chosen the polytechnic as first institution or changed earlier to them as the most preferred (number 1).
3. After the online registration, which will involve filling all your O’level grades and UTME score, you’re only required to print an acknowledgment slip (evidence of completed registration).
4. After this, candidates are to keep checking their JAMB CAPS status . You’re to accept admission thereon if asked to.
5. If admission is offered on CAPS, it means the polytechnic has offered you admission on the school portal too. You just have to wait for the school to load their list online.

NOTE : The polytechnic mostly gives admission based on the highest performance in JAMB. In other words, candidates with lower marks may not be considered for more competitive courses such as Mass Communication, Business Administration, Accountancy, Science Laboratory technology, etc.

PROBLEM 1: Given ∫ᵅ₋ₐ 15x²dx = 3430. Find the value of the constant a

∫ᵅ₋ₐ 15x²dx = 3430
dx = [5x³/3]ᵅ₋ₐ
[5(a)³/3] – [5(-a)³/3] = 3430
5a³ + 5a³ = 3430
10a³ = 3430
10a³/10 = 3430/10
a³ = 343
a = 3√343
a = 7

PROBLEM 2: Using the quadratic formular, determine the roots of the equation x²+6x+m = 0, ∀m ∈ R

what is the meaning of this ∀m ∈ R
∀ means for ALL
∈ means is a MEMBER
R means REAL NUMBER
∀m ∈ R means for ALL m are MEMBERS of a REAL NUMBER
LET’S SOLVE
x = [-b± √(b²-4ac) ] ÷ 2a
x²+6x+m = 0
Let A = 1, B = 6 and C = 0
x = [-6± √(6²-4×1×m) ] ÷ 2×1
x = [-6÷2 ± √(36-4m)÷2
x = [-3 ± √(-4[9-m]m) ÷ 2
x = -3 ± √(9-m); Therefore x = -3 + √(9-m) or x = -3 – √(9-m)

Given that these roots differ by 2k, k∈R and K ≠ 0, show that k² = 9-m

Continuation of question 2

-3 + √(9-m) – ( -3 – √(9-m) = 2k
-3 + √(9-m) + 3 + √(9-m) = 2k
2√(9-m) = 2k
√(9-m) = k
K² = 9-m (PROVED)

PROBLEM 3: For a geometric progression (Vₙ), the sum of the first n terms is sₙ = V₁(1-rⁿ)÷(1-r); r ≠ 1 where r is the common ratio
i) Show that (S₃ₙ – S₂ₙ) ÷ Sₙ = r²ⁿ

Vn = Last term of Geometry progression
sₙ = V₁(1-rⁿ)÷(1-r); r ≠ 1
Note: V1 is the first term
S3n = V₁(1-r3n)÷(1-r), S2n = V₁(1-r2n)÷(1-r); and sₙ = V₁(1-rⁿ)÷(1-r)
Substitute it into (S₃ₙ – S₂ₙ) ÷ Sₙ
[ V₁(1-r3n)÷(1-r) – V₁(1-r2n)÷(1-r) ] ÷ [V₁(1-rⁿ)÷(1-r)][ V₁(1-r3n)÷(1-r) – V₁(1-r2n)÷(1-r) ] × [ (1-r)÷V₁(1-rⁿ) ](V1r2n – V1r3n) ÷ V1 (1-r n)
(V1r2n – V1r3n) ÷ ( V1 – V1 r n)
r2n (V1 – V1r3n) ÷ ( V1 – V1 r n)
⇒ r²ⁿ

Hence find, for when r = ½

r²ⁿ, where n = 0, r = ½
r²ⁿ ⇒½²⁽⁰⁾ =½⁰ (Note anything raise to power zero is one)
= 1

PROBLEM 4: An arithmetic progression (Un) is defined ∀n ∈ ℕ

Question 1: Determine the first term U0 and the common difference of (Un)

U0 = a, U1= a+d, U2 = a+2d and U5= a+5d
a = first term, d = common difference
U0 + U1 + U2 = 15
and U5 = 17
a + ( a+d) + (a+2d) = 15
3a + 3d =15
a + d = 5 ….. equation (1)
and a+5d = 17…….equ equation (2)
Using elimination method
a + d = 5 …..(1)
-[ a + 5d = 17] …(2)
Common difference, d = 3
Substitute d as 3 into equation 1
a + 3 = 5
a = 5-3; = 2

Question 2: What is the sum of the first 25 terms

When a = 2 and d = 3
Sn = n/2 [ 2a+(n-1)d]S25 = 25/2 [ 2×2+(25-1)3 ]= 12.5 [ 4+(24×3) ]= 12.5 [ 4+72 ]= 12.5 × 76
⇒950

NECESSARY DOCUMENTS

1. Court Affidavits: This is just a legal statement of good conduct and anti-cultism. Make sure you follow futa format, get it done in an high court, ensure it is signed, stamped and sealed.
2. Certificate of Origin: you’re to get this in the local government you filled during jamb registration compulsorily. If you can’t travelled down there,contact someone over there to get it done on your behalf and travel it to you. Liaison office documents isn’t welcomed.
3. Certificate of Birth: This can be gotten from your local government secretariat or general hospital ONLY.
4. Jamb Documents: You’re to generate RRR for both the original result and admission letter from jamb. Make sure you print them coloured.
5. Futa Documents: post utme results and futa admission letter is a necessity during registration.
6. Attestation letter: A letter of good conduct from a reputable personality or organisation about you. To be addressed to the registrar.
7. O_level result and testimonial: Online print out is an error, make sure you get the original result from your school unless it’s not out officially then you can present statement of results. Some registration officer won’t accept statements of results. Leaving school testimonial is also required.

• STUDENT MOTIVATION
• Difference between Sandwich and CDL student
• EXPO FOR 2023/2024 CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
• How to write letter of undertaking in the university/college Admissions
• THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC, ADO-EKITI 2022/2023 FIRST SEMESTER ACADEMIC CALENDAR

The listed documents below are to be provided for FUTA admission processes by each eligible candidate 2022/2023. This information is provided by the school management. That is the latest news from www.futa.edu.ng

This is to inform all the students (both fresh and returning) of The Polytechnic Ibadan (IbadanPoly) that the management of the institution has announced the resumption date for the commencement of academic activities for the first semester, 2022/2023 academic session.

In order words, The polytechnic Ibadan resumption date 2022/2023 has been released by the school management. That is the latest news from www.polyibadan.edu.ng

The school officially stated that they will be resuming August 1, but though the resumption might not happen immediately, it can be delayed till next month after the proposed academy dates due to the newly intake registration. First semester lecture start on 5th of September (Monday), 2022.

PROPOSED ACADEMY DATE FOR 1st and 2nd SEMESTER 2022/2023

The Polytechnic Ibadan Resumption Date for freshers and returning students have been approved by the school senate for the 2022/2023 Academic Session. Continue reading below to see more information about the school official resumption date

2nd semester begins _ Monday, 23rd January, 2023

Official The polytechnic Ibadan WhatsApp group

poly WhatsApp group

• STUDENT MOTIVATION
• Difference between Sandwich and CDL student
• EXPO FOR 2023/2024 CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
• How to write letter of undertaking in the university/college Admissions
• THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC, ADO-EKITI 2022/2023 FIRST SEMESTER ACADEMIC CALENDAR

How Possible is it for UI to merge two sessions together? When is the Post Utme? When are we resuming?

Without no much clarification UI is not merging two sessions together. You should have heard that last year UI didn’t merge 2020 set with 2021 set, rather they stopped admission for that year. UI is a reputable and best university in Nigeria as you know it is called the first and best university.
Some candidate are in haste rushing to where? The Post UTME is yet to commence due to ASUU strike so the resumption date for this year admission haven’t been officially stated. The students that were admitted last year used two years at home and the ones before them used more than that, the delay has been like that due to the pandemic or ASUU strike. For instance, ASUU was on strike for a record breaking of 9 month at year 2020. But you see this current strike will break the former record. Yes you read that right! Don’t allow the strike to cause frustration, anxiety, depression or anger on you. This is a better medium for those that have not read well for the post utme to read all over again and don’t give up now. For those writing jamb next year, bear in mind that UI might not accept 2023 candidates.

JUST_IN: JAMB Announces Date To Reschedule UTME Exam For Candidates
The Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) has set Saturday, 6th August, 2022, for its Mop-Up UTME. This is the usual custom of the board after all the reports have been collated and considered. The Management would then take critical decisions as to the necessity or otherwise of a mop-up examination for which category of candidates.
After a thorough analysis of the conduct of the 2022 UTME in 10 centres spread across five states of the federation where examination malpractice was established to have taken place, it became necessary to cancel the results of all the candidates who sat for the examination in the ten centres.The Board however took note of the fact that some innocent candidates unfortunately sat their examination at these centres. Such candidates would also be rescheduled for the mop-up examination.
Other candidates rescheduled for the examination include:
1)142 candidates who could not take the UTME due to finger-print peculiarities
2)candidates who could not take the examination due to technical problems in some centres; and
3)1,799 candidates with BVM failure who were recaptured at the centres.
For those writing jamb next year, bear in mind that UI might not accept 2023 candidates.

Please note that there are three different cut off marks when it comes to admission process in University of Ibadan.

1. You must score minimum of 200 in JAMB UTME before you would be eligible to write POST UTME.
2. You must score minimum of 50 in UI-POST UTME before you’ll be considered for Admission.
3. The aggregate of your JAMB UTME and UI POST-UTME scores should meet the merit cut off mark for your preferred course of study. Please note that departmental cut off mark is not stable, but influenced by some factors.
   There are three different cut off marks when it comes to UI
   First. JAMB cut off mark.
   You must score minimum of 200 before you’ll be eligible for UI POST UTME
   The second one.
   UI POST UTME is /100.
   If you don’t score minimum of 50, you won’t be considered for admission.
   The third one.
   Departmental cut off mark.
   The is the aggregate of JAMB UTME and POST-UTME scores.
   It is based on the calculation.
   JAMB score divided by 8
   POST UTME score divided by 2

To get more information about this post visit the school website https://www.ui.edu.ng/news/20212022-post-utme-cut-marks

The velocity of such on a transmission line is given as V = √(1/LC)
Where L = Line inductance per unit length (H/m) i.e Henry per meter
C = Line capacitance per unit length (f/m) i.e farad per meter
V = The velocity of propagation of surge (m/s) meter per seconds
Surge velocity is independent of size and spacing of conductor

Velocity of propagation of surge in underground cable
Where a is the radius of the core
b is the radius of the sheath
C = 2πEo÷inB/A and L = μo/2π • inB/A

NOTE: E = Absolute permittivity of a medium
μ = Absolute permeability of a medium
E = EoEr and μ =μoμr
Eo = Absolute permittivity of free space and Er = relative absolute permittivity
μo = Absolute permeability of free space and μr = relative absolute permeability
For magnetic material V = √(1/LC)
V = √[1/(μo/2π • inB/A × 2πEo÷inB/A)
V = √(1/μoEo)
Eo = 4π × 10–⁷
μo = 1/36π × 10–⁹
V = √(1 ÷ (1/36π × 10–⁹ × 4π × 10–⁷)
V = √(1 ÷ (1/9 × 10–¹⁶ )

The 10–¹⁶ when the power leaves the numerator to the numerator it changes sign from 10–¹⁶ to 10¹⁶
V = √(1 ÷ 0.11 × 10¹⁶)
V = √9.009×10¹⁶
V = 3 × 10⁸m/s

1. Buffer system malfunction message means what?
   A) The label is cut off
   B) The Buffer system is too tension
   C) The label is not properly fixed on the web guilder
   D) None of the above
   The point at which the label is cut off from the buffer there will be buffer system malfunction on the HMI(human machine interface)
   
2. When monitoring three alarm comes on, it means
   A) Missing label at the vacuum cylinder
   B) Untransferred label at the vacuum cylinder
   C) Label not properly positioned on the bottle
   D) Option A and C
   On the labeller machine, one error that is usually displayed on the HMI when three alarm comes on is label carryover also called Untransferred label at the vacuum cylinder
   
3. When monitoring two alarm comes on, it means
   A) No label on the vacuum cylinder
   B) Label on the vacuum cylinder
   C) Missing label between cutter drum and glue roller
   D) None of the above
   When monitoring two alarm comes on, it means missing label between cutter drum and glue roller
   
4. When you have chips of label on the cutting station, what can cause it?
   A) The knife is too out
   B) Excessive vacuum
   C) The cutting point on the cutter drum is not correct
   D) The knife is too short
   Having chips of label on the cutting station can be caused by having excessive vacuum
   
5. Servo drive signal malfunction on cutting unit means?
   A) The rotary cutter servo motor is not running due to restriction
   B) Servo amplifier is faulty
   C) The interrupt card on the servo motor is faulty
   D) Servo amplifier is not faulty
   Servo drive signal malfunction on cutting unit means Servo amplifier is faulty
   
6. If the label on the cutter drum is either too early or too late to the suction rail. How do you address it?
   A) Adjust the cutter drum
   B) Adjust the rotary cutter
   C) Adjust the vacuum cylinder
   D) None of the above
   The vacuum cylinder should be adjusted. The moment the technical trained personnel notice that the label at the cutter drum is either too early or too late he/she should adjust the vacuum cylinder
   
7. What are the possibility for glue splash?
   A) Too much glue at the roller
   B) Viscosity of the glue is too low
   C) Viscosity of the glue is too high
   D) Less glue at the roller
   Option A is wrong. The reason for it is that having too much glue at the roller does not matter if there will be glue splash, the only thing that matters most is the viscosity of the glue. If the viscosity is too low there will be label carryover because the glue will be too thick to be supplied by the glue roller, they can solve this by increasing the heat temperature at the bowl. If the viscosity is too high there will be glue splash because at that state the glue is lighter than it should be. The correct answer is C.
   
8. What is bottle gap detection?
   A) There is gap on the infeed conveyor
   B) There is gap on the infeed worm
   C) There is missing bottle at the carousel
   D) There is no gap on the infeed conveyor
   Bottle gap detection means there is a missing bottle at the carousel.
   
9. What is the function of the web guilder?
   A) To level the label going to the feed roller
   B) To remove electrostatic paralises
   C) To determine the right length of label to feed in
   D) None of the above
   The function of the web guilder is to level the label going to the feed roller
   
10. How do you set the encoder back to zero position if it is out of reference point?
    A) Mechanical zero position turning the encoder at its direction of rotation until there is a rising edge
    B) Mechanical zero position turning the encoder at its direction of rotation until there is a falling edge
    C) Mechanical zero position and calibrate the encoder
    D) None of the above
    
11. How is synchronization achieved between the carousel and labelling station?
    A) Incremental encoder
    B) Sensor
    C) Absolute en-dat encoder
    D) Servo motor resolver
    
12. What is the purpose of the infeed worm timing belt
    A) Synchronize the infeed conveyor with the machine
    B) Synchronize the infeed worm with the machine
    C) Synchronize the infeed worm with the labelling station
    D) None of the above
    To Synchronize the infeed worm with the machine
    
13. When the rotary cutter is at the reference point, what is the angular value?
    A) 180 degrees
    B) 90 degrees
    C) 110 degrees
    D) None of the above
    
14. The central head is hooking on the top cam and thereby causing an unusual noise, what are the possibilities?
    A) Wear and tear of the centering bolt and pressure spring
    B) Over tension of the pressure spring
    C) cam follower too tight
    D) Cam follower not too tight
    Wear and tear of the centering bolt and pressure spring
    
15. When the infeed clutch alarm is on
    A) The bearing has collapsed
    B) The belt is off
    C) The bearing has not collapsed
    D) The clutch has dis-engage
    The clutch has dis-engage
    
16. On krones machine why do you need to have oil on the cutter drum?
    A) To maintain the drum temperature against expansion
    B) To lubricate the inner bearings on the cutter drum
    C) Check through the sight glass to seethe bubbles of oil
    D) Option B and C
    
17. When the infeed clutch alarm is on
    A) The bearing has collapsed
    B) The clutch has dis-engage
    C) The belt has cut off
    D) All of the above
    The clutch has dis-engage
    
18. Basically quality assurance (QA) test are done on the labeller. One is the label wrapping quality and the other is?
    A) Fallen bottles
    B) Full bottle quality
    C) Full bottle label
    D) Full fallen bottles
    The other quality assurance (QA) test is full bottle label
    
19. Which encoder type is used to synchronize the rotary cutter with anvil bar of the cutter drum?
    A) On-dat absolute encoder
    B) Incremental encoder
    C) Servo motor resolver
    D) Sensor
    
20. What is the purpose of carousel timing belt?
    A) Synchronize the carousel with the infeed worm
    B) Synchronize the carousel with the Bottle plate
    C) Synchronize the carousel with the cylinder
    D) Turning the bottle seat 360 degrees
    
21. How many encoders do you have on the labelling machine?
    A) 6
    B) 2
    C) 8
    D) 4
    The labelling machine has 6 (but it varies in some type of manufacturers, some are 1 or 2)
    
22. What is the distance between the vacuum cylinder and the cutter drum?
    A) 0.6mm
    B) 0.2mm
    C) 2mm
    D) 6mm
    The distance between the vacuum cylinder and the cutter drum is 0.2mm
    
23. How is synchronization achieved between the carousel and the labelling station?
    A) Incremental encoder
    B) Absolute en-dat encoder
    C) Servo motor resolver
    D) All of the above
    
24. The signal from the encoder goes to the splitter from the splitter it splits it into three places which are?
    A) Vacuum cylinder, carousel and Main drive
    B) Discharge conveyor, carousel and vacuum cylinder
    C) Infeed conveyor, rotary cutter and main drive
    D) None of the above
    The three places it splits into are Vacuum cylinder, carousel and Main drive
    
25. In what situation should the machine be operated while the safety doors is open?
    A) During set-up
    B) During operation
    C) During shut down
    D) All of the above
    The machine safety doors should always be close expecially during running and start up. Some operators do close or open the safety doors during shut down anyway

1. Which of the factors listed below is not considered when selecting the types of conveyor chains and components to be used on conveyor system.
   A) The types of product to be handled
   B) Any specification of conveyor chains and components available for supply.
   C) Operating condition of the line
   D) The specification of the conveyor chains and components
   The types of product to be handled: Yes, one of the factors to be considered when selecting a conveyor is the type of the product to be run. On RGB( returnable glass bottles) line they make use of steel conveyor while the bead conveyor is used for can lines because of the type of product. Glass bottle are will spoil the bead conveyor and the stainless conveyor will cause scratch or dent on can if used.
   Operating condition of the line: the operating condition of conveyor on RGB lines should be 45⁰ centigrade or below it varies for Pet( polyethylene teraphthalate) lines
   Any specification of conveyor chains and components available for supply: These factor is not considered when choosing a conveyor. For instance, coca-cola bottling company will not want to know if a manufacturer have their required or specified conveyor or not, if they don’t have what they’re looking for they will request it from a manufacturer that have what they’re looking for e.g krones or sidel
   So therefore, the correct answer is B ( any specification of conveyor chains and components available for supply)
   
2. Split sprocket are mostly referred to one piece solid sprocket because
   A) They are more stable
   B) They are more cheaper
   C) They are more hygienic
   D) They are easier to install, maintain and inspect
   They are easier to install, maintain and inspect
   
3. Listed below are benefits derived from proper and thorough cleaning of conveyor systems except
   A) Increased line availability
   B) Optimized line efficiency
   C) Increased number of line stoppages
   D) Apreciable reduction in maintenance cost
   Increased line availability: No matter how old a line is it will continue to produce optimally as soon as the trained personnel is properly maintaining that machine adequately.
   Optimized line efficiency: The efficiency of a line could be increased due to meticulous care of the conveyor system.
   Increased number of line stoppages: This is not part of the benefits of properly and thoroughly cleaning the conveyor system
   Appreciable reduction in maintenance cost: If a line is properly maintained the company has no reason to repair or replace the conveyor hereby reducing the cost of maintenance. Some of our lines conveyor or parts cost more than millions so a preventive maintenance will result to little or no cost of maintenance.
   The correct answer is C(increased number of line stoppages)
   
4. Listed below are reasons why thorough cleaning of conveyor systems is necessary except
   A) To keep bacteria situation of the conveyor under control
   B) To optimize the service life of conveyor chains and components
   C) To increase the speed of the conveyors on the conveyor system
   D) To keep the friction level of the line low
   To keep bacteria situation of the conveyor under control: Meticulous care of the conveyor will prevent bacteria or contamination from entering the product.
   To optimize the service life of conveyor chains and components: How old a line or machine is doesn’t matter how optimally it will function as soon as the trained personnelis giving the machine proper maintenance
   To increase the speed of the conveyors on the conveyor system: Thorough clean of conveyor can’t increase the speed of the conveyor. The speed of the conveyor is determined by the speed of the machine operated at that particular time.
   To keep the friction level of the line low: There will be no resistance or restriction on the part of the conveyor system in order to run the line efficiently.
   The correct answer is C ( to increase the speed of the conveyors on the conveyor system)
   
5. One of the stakeholders listed below is not involved in cleaning of conveyor systems
   A) Line managers and operators
   B) consumer of products
   C) conveyor line designer and manufacturer
   D) Manufacturers of conveyor chains and components
   Consumer of products: The consumers aren’t allowed to enter the line except for business matters talkless of cleaning or operating the machine.
   
6. Chain elongation is mainly caused by
   A) Wear around the chain hinge
   B) Pull in the chain hinge
   C) Badly worn chain pin
   D) Badly worn chain plate
   It is mainly caused by badly worn chain pin
   
7. Which of the tools below can be used to inspect the gap between sprocket and shaft in order to determine the level of wear of sprocket bore.
   A) Measuring tape
   B) Feeler gauge
   C) Vernier calliper
   D) Spring scale
   The feeler gauge can be used to inspect the gap between sprocket and shaft in order to determine the level of wear of sprocket bore.
   
8. Which of the conveyor failures listed below will not require bearing replacement as a possible remedy.
   A) Excessive vibrations from bearings during operation
   B) Badly worn and elongated conveyor chains
   C) Excessive noise from bearing during operation
   D) Visible signs of fatigue and cracks on the cage and housing
   All of the following will cause it but a minimum of excessive vibrations from bearings during operation cannot cause change of bearing
   
9. One of the following is not part of the conveyor
   A) Wear strip
   B) Chain guide
   C) Roller ball
   D) Idler roller
   The wear strip, chain guide and idler roller are part of the conveyor but roller ball can be only found on the filler machine
   
10. Why is it important that the feet of the conveyor are on levelled ground?
    A) For rigidity
    B) For weight balancing
    C) All of the above
    D) Not for rigidity
    The feet of the conveyor are on levelled ground because of both rigidity an weight balancing. The weight of the product must be balanced for easy passage of the product and must be rigid to avoid fallen product
    
11. The correct way to split a roller chain is to split the chain at the master link
    A) TRUE
    B) FALSE
    Yes, it is true. The master link is used to join the moving part of the conveyor to the other part of the conveyor for easy rotation of the conveyor. So to split the roller chain you must split the chain at the master link.
    
12. A damage return roller can cause damage to;
    A) All of the above
    B) seizure of the roller
    C) Increased downtime
    D) Slat chain
    If a return roller is damage it can cause downtime, stoppage of the roller and damage to the slat chain connected to it. All of the above is the preferable answer
    
13. Lubrication of the conveyor at the flange bearing is through the _______
    A) Opening
    B) Top
    C) Nipple
    D) Mouth
    The bearing of the conveyor can only be lubricated through the nibble.
    
14. The following are signs of properly maintained conveyor system
    A) All of the following
    B) The slat chain must be replaced
    C) The collapsed bearing must be replace correctly
    D) The tension on the drive chain must be set correctly
    All of the above are signs of properly maintainance of the conveyor
    
15. Is it necessary that the conveyor system is level at all times;
    A) To prevent slack and ensure adequate tensioning of the conveyor and also to prevent bottles falling over and causing breakages on the line
    B) To prevent the driving motor from carrying heavy loads
    C) To prevent the conveyor from over speeding during operation
    D) To improve the running time of the conveyor line
    Yes, to prevent slack and ensure adequate tensioning of the conveyor and also to prevent bottles falling over and causing breakages on the line.
    
16. The main difference between a straight tab and flexible tab conveyor slat band is;
    A) The width
    B) The length
    C) The angle at the edge of the slat
    D) None of the above
    The main difference between a straight tab and flexible tab conveyor slat band is the angle at the edge of the slat. One of the tab angle is very close while the other is quite open
    
17. These are part of the modern day conveyor except
    A) Sprocket
    B) Idler shaft
    C) Motor
    D) Pulley
    You can’t see a pulley in a modern day beverage and food company line or machine
    
18. Which of these is not an appropriate check for conveyor systems
    A) Check sprocket tooth wear
    B) Check chain tension
    C) Check sustainability of hammer
    D) Check chain wear
    The other checks are okay but checking suitability of hammer seems useless here. Why should you check for the fitness of hammer why doing critical check on the conveyor?
    
19. Before any form of maintenance must be carried out on the conveyor you must do one of the following
    A) All of the following
    B) Shut down safely
    C) Main power supply isolated
    D) Empty the conveyor
    I know you want to say empty the conveyor, but you’ve to ask yourself if it is possible to correct or do any maintenance on a machine that is still running. So you have to first, empty the conveyor then shut down the machine then after isolate the main power supply in order to avoid any other personnel from starting the machine
    
20. Temperature of the motor driving the shaft of the conveyor motor must not exceed
    A) 45 degree centigrade
    B) 50 degree centigrade
    C) 55 degree centigrade
    D) 60 degree centigrade
    Temperature of the motor driving the shaft of the conveyor motor must not exceed 45 degree centigrade
    
21. In removing a slat chain the following is a required tools except one
    A) Appropriate pin punch
    B) Spirit level
    C) Hammer
    D) Appropriate screw driver
    If you have been on the line before you would have seen the operator/trained personnel or the engineer in charge using appropriate pin punch, hammer and screw driver but plumb or spirit level used by mostly bricklayers aren’t the required tools used in removing a slat chain.
    
22. It is ideal to have the master link of drive chain face inward instead of outward
    A) TRUE
    B) FALSE
    True, it is position inward so as to prevent it from being exposed to dangers likely from the loads, moving on the conveyor

1. Mutual inductance: This is when the magnetic flux of two or more inductors are linked up together in that the voltage induced in one coil is proportional to the Chang of current in the another.
2. Coefficient of coupling: This is the magnetic flux produce by current in one coil which links with the other coil.
   B) 500/200v single phase transformer has primary resistance of 0.5Ω and reactance of 3.7Ω, while the secondary resistance and reactance are 0.03Ω and 0.25Ω respectively. Compute the equivalent values of resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the primary and secondary

1) All the following will liberate a gas when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid except

a) Sodium tetraoxosulphate (vi) salt
b) Sodium tetraoxocarbonate (vi) salt
c) Sodium trioxonitrate (v)

2. The isomer of a compound C5H10 which does NOT decolorize bromine water is

a) 2-methylbutane

b) 2,2-dimethylpropane

c) 2-methylbut-1-ene

d) Methylcyclobutane

Answer

C5H10 is an hydrocarbon by inspection expected to be an alkene. Bromine water is used to test for unsaturation in organic compounds but for C5H10 to test negative to bromine water includes that it is a saturated organic compounds with one double bond equivalent and must be a cyclic compound. Option A and B have molecular formula C5H10 a saturated alkane, option C is an alkene and will test positive to bromine water but the isomer of a compound that does NOT decolorize bromine water is option (D) Methylcyclobutane

3. A mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and helium contains 0.25, 0.15 and 0.4 mole of these gases respectively. If the pressure contribution due to oxygen was 2.5 atm. The partial pressure of helium is.

a) 4.0 atm

b) 0.8 atm

c) 3.33 atm

d) 6.67,atm

Solution

We have 3 element Nitrogen, Oxygen and Helium

Nitrogen has 0.25 moles

Oxygen has 0.15 moles

Helium has 0.4 moles

Total no. Of moles = no of moles of ( nitrogen+ oxygen + helium)

Total no. Of moles = 0.25+0.15+0.4

= 0.8 moles

If the pressure contribution due to oxygen was 2.5 atm, find The partial pressure of helium is.

For us to find the partial pressure of helium we must first find the total pressure of mixture

Partial pressure of oxygen = No. Of moles of oxygen/ Total No. Of moles × total pressure of mixture

Make ( Total pressure of mixture) the subject of the formula

Total pressure of mixture = ( Total No. Of moles/ no. Of moles of oxygen ) × pressure contribution of oxygen)

= ( 0.8 × 2.5)/0.15
= 13.3 atm
The partial pressure of helium is.
Partial pressure of helium = No. Of moles of helium/ Total No. Of moles × total pressure of mixture
= 0.4/0.8 × 13.3
= 6.66 atm [D]

https://myschool.ng/questions/view/academic-questions/203589

4. Element P has atomic number of 12 while element Q has an atomic number 15. Combination of P and Q gave a compound PmQn. The respective values of m and n are

• 2 and 2
• 2 and 3
• 3 and 2
• 2 and 1

Let’s find the electronic configuration of each element
P = 12 = 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2
Q = 15 = 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P3
Element P have 2-electrons in it’s outermost shell i.e P2+ Element Q have 5-electrons in its outermost shell. I.e Q3+. Element Q needs 3-electrons to achieve octet configuration. It will need 6-electrons from 3-atoms of P to complete its configuration while 2 atoms of Q is needed, the compound is P3Q2 ( Exchange of valency)

p3Q2. Where m is 3 and n is 2

Therefore the final answer is P3Q2 (3 and 2)

5. The hydrocarbon, CxHY in the reaction above is most likely

• an alkane
• a benzene
• an alkene
• an alkyne

Mathematics questions with solutions

1. A regular polygon has each of its angles as 160⁰. What is the number of sides of the polygon?